Timeline of World and Biblical History

Early Dynastic Period to the death of Cleopatra VII.

1. About 3000 BC Narmer and the Unification of Egypt

   Ruler · Egypt · About 3000 BC

   The Narmer Palette shows a king of the First Dynasty wearing the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. The Early Dynastic Period is dated about 3000 to 2686 BC.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
2. About 2667–2648 BC Djoser and the Step Pyramid

   Ruler · Egypt · About 2667–2648 BC

   The Third Dynasty king Djoser built the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, the first large stone pyramid.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
3. About 2589–2566 BC Khufu and the Great Pyramid

   Ruler · Egypt · About 2589–2566 BC

   The Fourth Dynasty king Khufu built the Great Pyramid at Giza.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
   2. Ancient Egyptian Chronology (E. Hornung, R. Krauss, and D. A. Warburton (Eds.), Brill, 2006)
4. About 2160–2055 BC First Intermediate Period

   Event · Egypt · About 2160–2055 BC

   Royal power splits between rival centers after the Old Kingdom.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
5. About 2055–2004 BC Mentuhotep II Reunites Egypt

   Ruler · Egypt · About 2055–2004 BC

   Mentuhotep II of Thebes reunites the country and begins the Middle Kingdom (about 2055–1650 BC).

   Sources

   1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
6. About 1890 BC Asiatic Traders at Beni Hasan

   Event · Egypt · About 1890 BC

   The tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan shows a group of Asiatic traders arriving in Egypt in year 6 of Senusret II. It is often cited as a picture of the world of the Genesis narratives.

   Genesis 46

   Sources

   1. On the Reliability of the Old Testament (K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003)
   2. Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition (J. K. Hoffmeier, Oxford University Press, 1996)
7. About 1650–1550 BC Hyksos Rule in the Delta

   Event · Egypt · About 1650–1550 BC

   Rulers of western Asian origin (the Fifteenth Dynasty) govern the Nile Delta from Avaris during the Second Intermediate Period.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
   2. Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition (J. K. Hoffmeier, Oxford University Press, 1996)
8. About 1550–1525 BC Ahmose I Expels the Hyksos

   Ruler · Egypt · About 1550–1525 BC

   Ahmose I drives out the Hyksos and founds the Eighteenth Dynasty and the New Kingdom (about 1550–1069 BC).

   Sources

   1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
9. About 1479–1425 BC Thutmose III

   Ruler · Egypt · About 1479–1425 BC

   Thutmose III campaigns in Canaan and Syria. His annals describe the Battle of Megiddo early in his sole reign.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
   2. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)
10. About 1473–1458 BC Hatshepsut

    Ruler · Egypt · About 1473–1458 BC

    Hatshepsut rules as pharaoh and builds her temple at Deir el-Bahri.

    Sources

    1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
11. About 1360–1332 BC The Amarna Letters

    Event · Egypt · About 1360–1332 BC

    Clay tablets from Akhenaten’s capital record letters between Egypt, the great powers, and Canaanite city rulers, including the ruler of Jerusalem.

    Sources

    1. The Amarna Letters (W. L. Moran, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992)
    2. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
12. About 1352–1336 BC Akhenaten

    Ruler · Egypt · About 1352–1336 BC

    Akhenaten promotes the worship of the Aten and moves the capital to Amarna.

    Sources

    1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
13. About 1336–1327 BC Tutankhamun

    Ruler · Egypt · About 1336–1327 BC

    The young king restores the older cults. His nearly intact tomb was found in 1922.

    Sources

    1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
14. About 1279–1213 BC Ramesses II

    Ruler · Egypt · About 1279–1213 BC

    Ramesses II builds Pi-Ramesses in the Delta. The late date for the Exodus places it in his reign (Exodus 1:11 names the store city Raamses).

    Exodus 1

    Sources

    1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
    2. On the Reliability of the Old Testament (K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003)
15. About 1208 BC The Merneptah Stele

    Event · Egypt · About 1208 BC

    A victory hymn of Merneptah, year 5, lists “Israel” as a people in Canaan. It is the earliest outside mention of Israel.

    Related Article

    Sources

    1. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)
    2. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
    3. On the Reliability of the Old Testament (K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003)
16. About 1177 BC Ramesses III Fights the Sea Peoples

    Event · Egypt · About 1177 BC

    Reliefs at Medinet Habu record Ramesses III’s battle with the Sea Peoples, among them the Peleset (Philistines), in his year 8.

    Judges 13

    Sources

    1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
    2. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)
17. About 925 BC Shoshenq I Campaigns in Canaan

    Ruler · Egypt · About 925 BC

    Shoshenq I (Shishak) lists towns in Judah and Israel on a relief at Karnak. 1 Kings 14:25 dates Shishak’s attack to Rehoboam’s fifth year.

    1 Kings 14 Related Article

    Sources

    1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
    2. On the Reliability of the Old Testament (K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003)
    3. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
18. About 610–595 BC Necho II

    Ruler · Egypt · About 610–595 BC

    Necho II marches north to aid Assyria. Josiah of Judah dies at Megiddo opposing him in 609 BC.

    2 Kings 23

    Sources

    1. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
    2. Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (A. K. Grayson, J. J. Augustin, 1975 (Chronicles 3, 5, and 7))
19. 525 BC Persian Conquest of Egypt

    Event · Egypt · 525 BC

    Cambyses II conquers Egypt and begins the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty.

    Sources

    1. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (P. Briant, Eisenbrauns, 2002)
    2. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
20. 51–30 BC Cleopatra VII

    Ruler · Egypt · 51–30 BC

    The last Ptolemaic ruler dies after Actium, and Egypt becomes a Roman province in 30 BC.

    Sources

    1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
    2. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)

Early Dynastic city-states to the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur.

1. About 3100 BC Earliest Writing at Uruk

   Event · Sumer · About 3100 BC

   Archaic tablets from Uruk record administrative accounts in proto-cuneiform, about 3300–3000 BC.

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
2. About 2900 BC Flood Traditions and Flood Layers

   Event · Sumer · About 2900 BC

   Genesis 6–9 tells of the Flood. Mesopotamian texts (Atrahasis, Gilgamesh XI, the Sumerian King List) also remember a great flood. Woolley and Mallowan linked river flood deposits at Ur and Shuruppak to those traditions.

   Dating Views

   No archaeological layer can be tied to the Flood of Genesis. The views differ on the kind of event, not only the date.

   • Mesopotamian Flood Layers (2900 BC): Mallowan linked a flood deposit at Shuruppak, near the end of the Jemdet Nasr period, to the Mesopotamian flood tradition. Woolley’s Ur deposit is earlier. (Noah’s Flood Reconsidered)
   • Undated Primeval History : Many scholars, conservative and critical, hold that Genesis 1–11 does not supply a datable chronology. (On the Reliability of the Old Testament)
   • Ussher (Traditional) (2348 BC): Ussher’s date, from the Masoretic ages in Genesis 5 and 11. A traditional view, not a scholarly date. The Septuagint ages give a much earlier date. (The Annals of the World (Annales Veteris Testamenti))

   Genesis 7

   Sources

   1. Noah’s Flood Reconsidered (M. E. L. Mallowan, Iraq 26(2), 1964, pp. 62–82)
   2. Atra-ḫasīs: The Babylonian Story of the Flood (W. G. Lambert and A. R. Millard, Oxford University Press, 1969)
3. About 2900–2350 BC Early Dynastic Sumer

   Event · Sumer · About 2900–2350 BC

   City-states such as Ur, Uruk, Lagash, and Kish compete for land and water.

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
   2. The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 1, Part 2: Early History of the Middle East (I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, and N. G. L. Hammond (Eds.), 3rd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1971)
4. About 2600 BC Royal Cemetery of Ur

   Event · Sumer · About 2600 BC

   Rich burials at Ur, excavated by Leonard Woolley, date to the mid-third millennium BC.

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
5. About 2112–2095 BC Ur-Nammu and the Third Dynasty of Ur

   Ruler · Sumer · About 2112–2095 BC

   Ur-Nammu founds the Third Dynasty of Ur, builds the ziggurat of Ur, and issues one of the earliest law collections.

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
   2. The Ancient Near East, c. 3000–330 BC (A. Kuhrt, Routledge, 1995)
6. About 2094–2047 BC Shulgi

   Ruler · Sumer · About 2094–2047 BC

   Shulgi of Ur reorganizes the state and its administration.

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
7. About 2004 BC Fall of Ur

   Event · Sumer · About 2004 BC

   Elamites sack Ur and end the Third Dynasty. The Lament for Ur mourns the city.

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
   2. The Ancient Near East, c. 3000–330 BC (A. Kuhrt, Routledge, 1995)

Middle chronology. Lower dates are possible on other chronologies.

1. About 2334–2279 BC Sargon of Akkad

   Ruler · Akkad · About 2334–2279 BC

   Sargon unites Sumer and Akkad in the first large territorial state of Mesopotamia.

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
   2. The Ancient Near East, c. 3000–330 BC (A. Kuhrt, Routledge, 1995)
2. About 2254–2218 BC Naram-Sin

   Ruler · Akkad · About 2254–2218 BC

   Sargon’s grandson takes the title “king of the four quarters” and claims divinity.

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)

The Genesis narratives give no fixed calendar date. The band marks the range the views below propose, not a single date.

1. About 2100–1800 BC Abraham

   Person · Patriarchs (Dates Disputed) · About 2100–1800 BC

   God calls Abraham from Ur and Harran to Canaan. There is no outside record of him, and the date depends on the view taken.

   Dating Views

   The patriarchal narratives give ages and intervals but no anchor outside the Bible.

   • Early Chronology (2166–1991 BC): Adds the Masoretic figures to an early Exodus, giving Abraham’s birth in 2166 BC. (Kingdom of Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel)
   • Middle Bronze Age Setting (2000–1800 BC): Compares names, treaty forms, and slave prices with early second-millennium texts. (On the Reliability of the Old Testament)
   • Critical View : Treats the narratives as later traditions that cannot be dated as history. (The Bible Unearthed)
   • Ussher (Traditional) (1996 BC): Ussher’s date for Abraham’s birth. A traditional view, not a scholarly date. (The Annals of the World (Annales Veteris Testamenti))

   Genesis 12Genesis 15

   Sources

   1. On the Reliability of the Old Testament (K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003)
   2. Kingdom of Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel (E. H. Merrill, 2nd ed., Baker Academic, 2008)
2. About 1900–1700 BC Joseph in Egypt

   Person · Patriarchs (Dates Disputed) · About 1900–1700 BC

   Joseph rises to high office in Egypt. Proposed settings range from the Middle Kingdom to the Hyksos period.

   Genesis 41

   Sources

   1. On the Reliability of the Old Testament (K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003)
   2. Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition (J. K. Hoffmeier, Oxford University Press, 1996)

Old, Middle, and Neo-Assyrian periods.

1. About 1950–1750 BC Assyrian Trade at Kanesh

   Event · Assyria · About 1950–1750 BC

   Merchants from Assur trade tin and textiles in Anatolia. Thousands of letters were found at Kültepe (Kanesh).

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
   2. The Ancient Near East, c. 3000–330 BC (A. Kuhrt, Routledge, 1995)
2. About 1808–1776 BC Shamshi-Adad I

   Ruler · Assyria · About 1808–1776 BC

   Shamshi-Adad builds a kingdom across northern Mesopotamia.

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
3. About 1363–1328 BC Ashur-uballit I

   Ruler · Assyria · About 1363–1328 BC

   Ashur-uballit I makes Assyria a great power and writes to Egypt (Amarna letters).

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
   2. The Amarna Letters (W. L. Moran, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992)
4. About 1114–1076 BC Tiglath-Pileser I

   Ruler · Assyria · About 1114–1076 BC

   Tiglath-Pileser I campaigns to the Mediterranean.

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
5. 883–859 BC Ashurnasirpal II

   Ruler · Assyria · 883–859 BC

   Ashurnasirpal II builds a new capital at Kalhu (Nimrud).

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
   2. The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 3, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires (J. Boardman et al. (Eds.), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1991)
6. 853 BC Battle of Qarqar

   Event · Assyria · 853 BC

   Shalmaneser III’s Kurkh Monolith lists “Ahab the Israelite” with 2,000 chariots among the allies who opposed him.

   1 Kings 22 Related Article

   Sources

   1. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)
   2. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
7. 841 BC Jehu Pays Tribute to Shalmaneser III

   Event · Assyria · 841 BC

   The Black Obelisk shows the tribute of “Jehu, son of Omri.” The date fixes a point in Israel’s chronology.

   2 Kings 10 Related Article

   Sources

   1. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)
   2. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
8. 745–727 BC Tiglath-Pileser III

   Ruler · Assyria · 745–727 BC

   Tiglath-Pileser III (Pul) takes tribute from Menahem and annexes much of Israel’s territory.

   2 Kings 15

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
   2. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
9. 701 BC Sennacherib’s Campaign Against Judah

   Event · Assyria · 701 BC

   Sennacherib takes Lachish and shuts up Hezekiah in Jerusalem “like a bird in a cage.” Reliefs at Nineveh show the siege of Lachish.

   2 Kings 18Isaiah 36 Related Article

   Sources

   1. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)
   2. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 10,000–586 BCE (A. Mazar, Doubleday, 1990)
10. About 668–631 BC Ashurbanipal

    Ruler · Assyria · About 668–631 BC

    Ashurbanipal’s library at Nineveh preserved thousands of tablets, including the Epic of Gilgamesh.

    Sources

    1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
11. 612 BC Fall of Nineveh

    Event · Assyria · 612 BC

    Babylonians and Medes destroy Nineveh. The Babylonian Chronicle records the fall. Nahum foretells it.

    Nahum 3

    Sources

    1. Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (A. K. Grayson, J. J. Augustin, 1975 (Chronicles 3, 5, and 7))
12. 609 BC End of Assyria at Harran

    Event · Assyria · 609 BC

    The last Assyrian king loses Harran, and the empire ends.

    Sources

    1. Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (A. K. Grayson, J. J. Augustin, 1975 (Chronicles 3, 5, and 7))
    2. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)

Old Babylonian, Kassite, and Neo-Babylonian periods (middle chronology).

1. About 1792–1750 BC Hammurabi of Babylon

   Ruler · Babylonia · About 1792–1750 BC

   Hammurabi makes Babylon the leading power in southern Mesopotamia. His law stele dates near the end of his reign.

   Sources

   1. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
   2. The Ancient Near East, c. 3000–330 BC (A. Kuhrt, Routledge, 1995)
   3. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)
2. About 1640 BC The Atrahasis Epic Is Copied

   Event · Babylonia · About 1640 BC

   An Old Babylonian copy of the Atrahasis epic, dated to the reign of Ammi-saduqa, tells of a great flood and a man who builds a boat.

   Genesis 6

   Sources

   1. Atra-ḫasīs: The Babylonian Story of the Flood (W. G. Lambert and A. R. Millard, Oxford University Press, 1969)
3. About 1595 BC Hittites Sack Babylon

   Event · Babylonia · About 1595 BC

   Mursili I raids Babylon and ends the First Dynasty. The Kassites then rule Babylonia for about four centuries.

   Sources

   1. The Kingdom of the Hittites (T. Bryce, new ed., Oxford University Press, 2005)
   2. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
4. 626–605 BC Nabopolassar

   Ruler · Babylonia · 626–605 BC

   Nabopolassar founds the Neo-Babylonian dynasty.

   Sources

   1. Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (A. K. Grayson, J. J. Augustin, 1975 (Chronicles 3, 5, and 7))
   2. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
5. 605 BC Battle of Carchemish

   Event · Babylonia · 605 BC

   Nebuchadnezzar defeats Necho II. The Babylonian Chronicle and Jeremiah 46:2 both record it.

   Jeremiah 46

   Sources

   1. Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (A. K. Grayson, J. J. Augustin, 1975 (Chronicles 3, 5, and 7))
6. 605–562 BC Nebuchadnezzar II

   Ruler · Babylonia · 605–562 BC

   Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilds Babylon and conquers Judah.

   Daniel 1

   Sources

   1. Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (A. K. Grayson, J. J. Augustin, 1975 (Chronicles 3, 5, and 7))
   2. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC (M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016)
7. 597 BC Jerusalem Captured, 16 March 597 BC

   Event · Babylonia · 597 BC

   The Babylonian Chronicle dates the capture of Jerusalem to 2 Adar of Nebuchadnezzar’s seventh year. Jehoiachin is taken to Babylon.

   2 Kings 24

   Sources

   1. Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (A. K. Grayson, J. J. Augustin, 1975 (Chronicles 3, 5, and 7))
   2. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
8. 556–539 BC Nabonidus and Belshazzar

   Ruler · Babylonia · 556–539 BC

   Nabonidus leaves his son Belshazzar in charge at Babylon for years while he stays at Tayma, as the Nabonidus Chronicle records.

   Daniel 5

   Sources

   1. Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (A. K. Grayson, J. J. Augustin, 1975 (Chronicles 3, 5, and 7))
   2. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)

Old Kingdom and Empire, ending in the Late Bronze Age collapse.

1. About 1650 BC Hattusili I

   Ruler · Hittites · About 1650 BC

   Hattusili I founds the Hittite Old Kingdom with its capital at Hattusa.

   Sources

   1. The Kingdom of the Hittites (T. Bryce, new ed., Oxford University Press, 2005)
2. About 1350–1322 BC Suppiluliuma I

   Ruler · Hittites · About 1350–1322 BC

   Suppiluliuma I makes the Hittites the leading power in Syria.

   Sources

   1. The Kingdom of the Hittites (T. Bryce, new ed., Oxford University Press, 2005)
3. About 1274 BC Battle of Kadesh

   Event · Hittites · About 1274 BC

   Muwatalli II and Ramesses II fight at Kadesh on the Orontes. Both sides claim success.

   Sources

   1. The Kingdom of the Hittites (T. Bryce, new ed., Oxford University Press, 2005)
   2. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology)
4. About 1259 BC Egyptian–Hittite Peace Treaty

   Event · Hittites · About 1259 BC

   Ramesses II and Hattusili III make the earliest peace treaty that survives in both parties’ versions.

   Sources

   1. The Kingdom of the Hittites (T. Bryce, new ed., Oxford University Press, 2005)
   2. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)
5. About 1180 BC Late Bronze Age Collapse

   Event · Hittites · About 1180 BC

   Hattusa is abandoned. Palace states across the eastern Mediterranean fall about 1200–1150 BC.

   Sources

   1. The Kingdom of the Hittites (T. Bryce, new ed., Oxford University Press, 2005)
   2. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 10,000–586 BCE (A. Mazar, Doubleday, 1990)

Mycenaean palaces, then the Archaic and Classical city-states and Macedon.

1. About 1600–1200 BC Mycenaean Palaces

   Event · Greece · About 1600–1200 BC

   Palaces at Mycenae, Pylos, and Knossos keep records in Linear B, an early form of Greek.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
2. About 776 BC First Olympiad (Traditional Date)

   Event · Greece · About 776 BC

   Greeks later counted years from the first Olympic Games, traditionally dated 776 BC.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
3. About 594 BC Solon’s Reforms at Athens

   Person · Greece · About 594 BC

   Solon is chosen archon and reforms Athenian law.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
4. 490 BC Battle of Marathon

   Event · Greece · 490 BC

   Athens and Plataea defeat the Persian force sent by Darius I.

   Sources

   1. The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 4: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, c. 525–479 BC (J. Boardman et al. (Eds.), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1988)
   2. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
5. 480 BC Thermopylae and Salamis

   Event · Greece · 480 BC

   Xerxes invades Greece. The Greek fleet wins at Salamis.

   Sources

   1. The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 4: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, c. 525–479 BC (J. Boardman et al. (Eds.), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1988)
   2. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
6. 447–432 BC The Parthenon Is Built

   Event · Greece · 447–432 BC

   Athens builds the Parthenon under Pericles.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
7. 431–404 BC Peloponnesian War

   Event · Greece · 431–404 BC

   Athens and Sparta fight a long war. Thucydides records it.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
8. 399 BC Death of Socrates

   Person · Greece · 399 BC

   Athens condemns Socrates to death. Plato and Xenophon record his trial.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
9. 384–322 BC Aristotle

   Person · Greece · 384–322 BC

   Aristotle studies under Plato and later tutors the young Alexander.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
10. 336–323 BC Alexander the Great

    Ruler · Greece · 336–323 BC

    Alexander conquers the Persian Empire and dies at Babylon in 323 BC.

    Daniel 8

    Sources

    1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
    2. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (P. Briant, Eisenbrauns, 2002)

From the first outside mention (Merneptah Stele) to the division of the kingdom.

1. About 1446–1260 BC The Exodus

   Event · Israel · About 1446–1260 BC

   Israel leaves Egypt under Moses. The two main scholarly dates are about 1446 BC and about 1270–1260 BC.

   Dating Views

   The date of the Exodus is one of the most debated questions in biblical chronology.

   • Early Date (1446 BC): Counts 480 years back from Solomon’s fourth year (1 Kings 6:1), using Thiele’s 966 BC. (Kingdom of Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel; The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings)
   • Late Date (1270–1260 BC): Reads the 480 years as a schematic figure and sets the Exodus under Ramesses II, after the building of Pi-Ramesses (Exodus 1:11). (On the Reliability of the Old Testament; Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition)
   • Critical View (1200–1100 BC): Many archaeologists find no evidence of a large exodus and treat Israel as emerging largely within Canaan in Iron Age I. (The Bible Unearthed)
   • Ussher (Traditional) (1491 BC): Ussher’s 1650 chronology. A traditional view, not a scholarly date. (The Annals of the World (Annales Veteris Testamenti))

   Exodus 12Exodus 141 Kings 6

   Sources

   1. On the Reliability of the Old Testament (K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003)
   2. Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition (J. K. Hoffmeier, Oxford University Press, 1996)
   3. Kingdom of Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel (E. H. Merrill, 2nd ed., Baker Academic, 2008)
2. About 1200–1050 BC Period of the Judges

   Event · Israel · About 1200–1050 BC

   Israel settles in the central hill country. Archaeology records many new small villages there in Iron Age I.

   Judges 2

   Sources

   1. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 10,000–586 BCE (A. Mazar, Doubleday, 1990)
   2. The Bible Unearthed (I. Finkelstein and N. A. Silberman, Free Press, 2001)
3. About 1050–1010 BC Saul

   Ruler · Israel · About 1050–1010 BC

   Saul is the first king of Israel. 1 Samuel 13:1 does not preserve his age and reign length clearly, so his dates are approximate.

   1 Samuel 10

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
   2. On the Reliability of the Old Testament (K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003)
4. About 1010–970 BC David

   Ruler · Israel · About 1010–970 BC

   David takes Jerusalem and makes it his capital. The Tel Dan Stele names the “House of David” about 150 years later.

   2 Samuel 5

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
   2. On the Reliability of the Old Testament (K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003)
5. 970–931 BC Solomon

   Ruler · Israel · 970–931 BC

   Solomon reigns forty years (1 Kings 11:42). Thiele dates his reign to 970–931 BC.

   1 Kings 11

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
6. 966 BC Solomon Begins the Temple

   Event · Israel · 966 BC

   1 Kings 6:1 dates the temple’s founding to Solomon’s fourth year, 480 years after the Exodus.

   Dating Views

   The founding date follows from the dates given to Solomon’s reign.

   • Thiele (966 BC): Solomon’s fourth year on Thiele’s chronology. (The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings)
   • Ussher (Traditional) (1012 BC): Ussher’s 1650 date. A traditional view, not a scholarly date. (The Annals of the World (Annales Veteris Testamenti))

   1 Kings 6

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
   2. The Annals of the World (Annales Veteris Testamenti) (J. Ussher, 1650; traditional chronology, shown only as a labeled view)

Northern kingdom, capital Samaria from Omri. Dates follow Thiele.

1. 931 BC The Kingdom Divides

   Event · Kingdom of Israel · 931 BC

   Israel splits into a northern kingdom under Jeroboam I and Judah under Rehoboam.

   Dating Views

   Dates for the kings depend on how coregencies and calendar systems are reconstructed.

   • Thiele (931 BC): Thiele’s chronology, anchored by Qarqar (853 BC) and Jehu’s tribute (841 BC). (The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings)
   • Albright (922 BC): Albright shortened some reigns and dated the division to 922 BC. (The Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel)

   1 Kings 12

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
   2. The Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel (W. F. Albright, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 100, 1945, pp. 16–22)
2. 931–910 BC Jeroboam I

   Ruler · Kingdom of Israel · 931–910 BC

   Jeroboam I sets up golden calves at Bethel and Dan.

   1 Kings 12

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
3. 885–874 BC Omri

   Ruler · Kingdom of Israel · 885–874 BC

   Omri founds Samaria. Assyrian texts call Israel the “House of Omri.”

   1 Kings 16

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
   2. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)
4. 874–853 BC Ahab and Elijah

   Ruler · Kingdom of Israel · 874–853 BC

   Ahab rules with Jezebel. Elijah confronts the prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel.

   1 Kings 18

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
5. 841–814 BC Jehu

   Ruler · Kingdom of Israel · 841–814 BC

   Jehu overthrows the house of Ahab and pays tribute to Shalmaneser III.

   2 Kings 9

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
6. About 840 BC The Mesha Stele

   Event · Kingdom of Israel · About 840 BC

   King Mesha of Moab records his revolt against Israel and names Omri. 2 Kings 3 tells of the same revolt.

   2 Kings 3 Related Article

   Sources

   1. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)
   2. On the Reliability of the Old Testament (K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003)
7. About 840 BC The Tel Dan Stele

   Event · Kingdom of Israel · About 840 BC

   An Aramean king’s inscription, about the mid-ninth century BC, names the “king of Israel” and the “House of David.”

   2 Kings 9 Related Article

   Sources

   1. The Tel Dan Inscription: A New Fragment (A. Biran and J. Naveh, Israel Exploration Journal 45(1), 1995, pp. 1–18)
   2. On the Reliability of the Old Testament (K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003)
8. 793–753 BC Jeroboam II, Amos, and Hosea

   Ruler · Kingdom of Israel · 793–753 BC

   Israel prospers under Jeroboam II. Amos and Hosea prophesy in this reign.

   Amos 1Hosea 1

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
9. 732–723 BC Hoshea

   Ruler · Kingdom of Israel · 732–723 BC

   Hoshea is the last king of Israel.

   2 Kings 17

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
10. 722 BC Fall of Samaria

    Event · Kingdom of Israel · 722 BC

    Samaria falls after a siege begun by Shalmaneser V. Sargon II claims its capture and the deportation of 27,290 people. Thiele dates the fall to 723/722 BC.

    2 Kings 17

    Sources

    1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
    2. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)

Kingdom of Judah, exile, Persian Yehud, Hasmonean and Herodian Judea, to the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70.

1. 931–913 BC Rehoboam

   Ruler · Judah and Judea · 931–913 BC

   Solomon’s son loses the northern tribes and faces Shishak’s invasion.

   1 Kings 14

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
2. About 740–686 BC Isaiah

   Person · Judah and Judea · About 740–686 BC

   Isaiah prophesies from the year Uzziah died through Hezekiah’s reign.

   Isaiah 6

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
3. 716–686 BC Hezekiah

   Ruler · Judah and Judea · 716–686 BC

   Hezekiah reforms worship and withstands Sennacherib. Thiele dates his sole reign from 716/715 BC.

   2 Kings 18

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
4. About 701 BC Hezekiah’s Tunnel and the Siloam Inscription

   Event · Judah and Judea · About 701 BC

   A water tunnel cut under Jerusalem carries a Hebrew inscription that describes the two crews meeting. 2 Kings 20:20 credits Hezekiah with the conduit.

   2 Kings 20 Related Article

   Sources

   1. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)
   2. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 10,000–586 BCE (A. Mazar, Doubleday, 1990)
5. 640–609 BC Josiah

   Ruler · Judah and Judea · 640–609 BC

   Josiah’s reform follows the finding of the Book of the Law in the temple (621 BC by Thiele). He dies at Megiddo in 609 BC.

   2 Kings 22

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
6. About 627–580 BC Jeremiah

   Person · Judah and Judea · About 627–580 BC

   Jeremiah prophesies from Josiah’s thirteenth year to after the fall of Jerusalem.

   Jeremiah 1

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
7. About 605–536 BC Daniel in Babylon

   Person · Judah and Judea · About 605–536 BC

   Daniel is taken to Babylon in Jehoiakim’s third year and serves until the reign of Cyrus. The date of the book’s composition is disputed.

   Dating Views

   The setting of the stories and the date of the book’s composition are separate questions.

   • Sixth-Century Composition (605–536 BC): Holds that the book comes from the exile and early Persian period. (On the Reliability of the Old Testament)
   • Second-Century Composition (167–164 BC): Dates the final form to the crisis under Antiochus IV. (Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel)

   Daniel 1 Related Article

   Sources

   1. Handbook of Biblical Chronology (J. Finegan, rev. ed., Hendrickson, 1998)
   2. On the Reliability of the Old Testament (K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003)
   3. Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel (J. J. Collins, Hermeneia, Fortress Press, 1993)
8. 593–571 BC Ezekiel

   Person · Judah and Judea · 593–571 BC

   Ezekiel prophesies among the exiles. His visions are dated by the years of Jehoiachin’s exile.

   Ezekiel 1

   Sources

   1. Handbook of Biblical Chronology (J. Finegan, rev. ed., Hendrickson, 1998)
9. 587–586 BC Destruction of Jerusalem and the First Temple

   Event · Judah and Judea · 587–586 BC

   Nebuchadnezzar’s army burns the temple in Zedekiah’s eleventh year. Scholars date this to 587 or 586 BC.

   Dating Views

   The difference turns on whether Judah counted regnal years from spring or autumn.

   • 586 BC (586 BC): Thiele and many others, reading Judah’s regnal year from autumn. (The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings)
   • 587 BC (587 BC): Other scholars, using a spring new year. (Handbook of Biblical Chronology)

   2 Kings 25Jeremiah 52

   Sources

   1. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983)
   2. Handbook of Biblical Chronology (J. Finegan, rev. ed., Hendrickson, 1998)
10. 538 BC First Return From Exile

    Event · Judah and Judea · 538 BC

    After Cyrus’s decree, exiles return to Jerusalem under Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel.

    Ezra 1

    Sources

    1. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (P. Briant, Eisenbrauns, 2002)
    2. Handbook of Biblical Chronology (J. Finegan, rev. ed., Hendrickson, 1998)
11. 515 BC Second Temple Completed

    Event · Judah and Judea · 515 BC

    Ezra 6:15 dates the completion to the sixth year of Darius I.

    Ezra 6Haggai 1

    Sources

    1. Handbook of Biblical Chronology (J. Finegan, rev. ed., Hendrickson, 1998)
    2. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (P. Briant, Eisenbrauns, 2002)
12. 458 BC Ezra Comes to Jerusalem

    Person · Judah and Judea · 458 BC

    Ezra 7:7 dates his journey to the seventh year of Artaxerxes. Most date it to Artaxerxes I (458 BC). Some prefer Artaxerxes II (398 BC).

    Dating Views

    Ezra 7:7 names Artaxerxes but not which king of that name.

    • Artaxerxes I (458 BC): The traditional order: Ezra before Nehemiah. (Handbook of Biblical Chronology)
    • Artaxerxes II (398 BC): Places Ezra after Nehemiah. (Ezra, Nehemiah)

    Ezra 7

    Sources

    1. Handbook of Biblical Chronology (J. Finegan, rev. ed., Hendrickson, 1998)
    2. Ezra, Nehemiah (H. G. M. Williamson, Word Biblical Commentary 16, Word Books, 1985)
13. About 450 BC Malachi

    Person · Judah and Judea · About 450 BC

    The last book of the Minor Prophets is usually set in the Persian period, near the time of Ezra and Nehemiah.

    Malachi 1

    Sources

    1. On the Reliability of the Old Testament (K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003)
14. 445 BC Nehemiah Rebuilds the Walls

    Person · Judah and Judea · 445 BC

    Nehemiah comes in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes I and rebuilds Jerusalem’s walls.

    Nehemiah 2

    Sources

    1. Handbook of Biblical Chronology (J. Finegan, rev. ed., Hendrickson, 1998)
    2. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (P. Briant, Eisenbrauns, 2002)
15. About 250 BC–AD 68 The Dead Sea Scrolls Are Copied

    Event · Judah and Judea · About 250 BC–AD 68

    Manuscripts found at Qumran date from about the third century BC to AD 68. They include the oldest known copies of most Old Testament books.

    Related Article

    Sources

    1. The Dead Sea Scrolls Today (J. C. VanderKam, 2nd ed., Eerdmans, 2010)
16. 167 BC Antiochus IV Desecrates the Temple

    Event · Judah and Judea · 167 BC

    The Seleucid king Antiochus IV sets up a pagan altar in the temple in December 167 BC (1 Maccabees 1:54).

    Daniel 11

    Sources

    1. The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (E. Schürer, rev. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Black, T&T Clark, 1973–1987, Vol. 1)
    2. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
17. 164 BC Temple Rededicated (Hanukkah)

    Event · Judah and Judea · 164 BC

    Judas Maccabeus retakes and rededicates the temple in December 164 BC. John 10:22 names the feast.

    John 10

    Sources

    1. The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (E. Schürer, rev. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Black, T&T Clark, 1973–1987, Vol. 1)
18. 63 BC Pompey Takes Jerusalem

    Event · Judah and Judea · 63 BC

    Pompey enters Jerusalem and the temple. Judea comes under Roman control.

    Sources

    1. Antiquities of the Jews (Flavius Josephus, trans. W. Whiston, 1737 (public domain))
    2. The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (E. Schürer, rev. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Black, T&T Clark, 1973–1987, Vol. 1)
19. 37–4 BC Herod the Great

    Ruler · Judah and Judea · 37–4 BC

    Herod rules Judea as a Roman client king and rebuilds the temple, beginning about 20/19 BC.

    Dating Views

    Josephus’s figures are usually read to place Herod’s death in 4 BC.

    • 4 BC (4 BC): The majority view, tied to a lunar eclipse before Passover. (The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ)
    • 1 BC (1 BC): A minority view tied to the eclipse of January 1 BC. (Handbook of Biblical Chronology)

    Matthew 2

    Sources

    1. Antiquities of the Jews (Flavius Josephus, trans. W. Whiston, 1737 (public domain))
    2. The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (E. Schürer, rev. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Black, T&T Clark, 1973–1987, Vol. 1)
20. About 6–4 BC Birth of Jesus

    Person · Judah and Judea · About 6–4 BC

    Jesus is born in Bethlehem before the death of Herod the Great (Matthew 2:1). Most scholars place the birth about 6–4 BC.

    Dating Views

    Matthew sets the birth before Herod died. The calendar was later miscalculated by Dionysius Exiguus.

    • 6–4 BC (6–4 BC): The majority view, before Herod’s death in 4 BC. (A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Vol. 1)
    • 3–2 BC (3–2 BC): Follows the later date for Herod’s death. (Handbook of Biblical Chronology)

    Matthew 2Luke 2 Related Article

    Sources

    1. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Vol. 1 (J. P. Meier, Doubleday, 1991, ch. 11)
    2. Handbook of Biblical Chronology (J. Finegan, rev. ed., Hendrickson, 1998)
21. AD 26–36 Pontius Pilate, Prefect of Judea

    Ruler · Judah and Judea · AD 26–36

    Pilate governs Judea. An inscription found at Caesarea in 1961 names him “prefect of Judea.”

    Matthew 27 Related Article

    Sources

    1. The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (E. Schürer, rev. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Black, T&T Clark, 1973–1987, Vol. 1)
    2. Antiquities of the Jews (Flavius Josephus, trans. W. Whiston, 1737 (public domain))
22. About AD 28–29 John the Baptist

    Person · Judah and Judea · About AD 28–29

    Luke 3:1 dates John’s preaching to the fifteenth year of Tiberius, AD 28/29 on the usual reckoning.

    Luke 3

    Sources

    1. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Vol. 1 (J. P. Meier, Doubleday, 1991, ch. 11)
    2. Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ (H. W. Hoehner, Zondervan, 1977)
23. AD 30–33 Crucifixion and Resurrection of Jesus

    Event · Judah and Judea · AD 30–33

    Jesus is crucified under Pontius Pilate at Passover and is raised on the third day. Tacitus also records the execution under Pilate.

    Dating Views

    Both dates fit a Friday Passover under Pilate.

    • AD 30 (AD 30): Friday, 7 April AD 30. Favored by many historians. (A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Vol. 1)
    • AD 33 (AD 33): Friday, 3 April AD 33. Fits a longer ministry after AD 29. (Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ)

    John 191 Corinthians 15 Related Article

    Sources

    1. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Vol. 1 (J. P. Meier, Doubleday, 1991, ch. 11)
    2. Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ (H. W. Hoehner, Zondervan, 1977)
    3. AnnalsTacitus, Annals 15.44 · Church and Brodribb, PerseusChristus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judæa, the first source of the evil, but even in RomeTacitus, Annals 15.44 · Church and Brodribb, PerseusOpen source (Tacitus, Book 15.44)
24. AD 70 Destruction of the Second Temple

    Event · Judah and Judea · AD 70

    Titus captures Jerusalem and burns the temple in August AD 70, as Josephus records.

    Luke 21

    Sources

    1. The Jewish War (Flavius Josephus, trans. W. Whiston, 1737 (public domain))
    2. The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (E. Schürer, rev. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Black, T&T Clark, 1973–1987, Vol. 1)
25. AD 73–74 Fall of Masada

    Event · Judah and Judea · AD 73–74

    The last rebel stronghold falls to Rome. Josephus describes the end.

    Sources

    1. The Jewish War (Flavius Josephus, trans. W. Whiston, 1737 (public domain))
    2. The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (E. Schürer, rev. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Black, T&T Clark, 1973–1987, Vol. 1)

The founding date is the traditional (Varronian) date. Settlement on the Palatine is older.

1. About 753 BC Founding of Rome (Traditional Date)

   Event · Rome · About 753 BC

   Roman writers placed the founding in 753 BC. Archaeology shows huts on the Palatine from about the tenth to eighth centuries BC.

   Dating Views

   • Traditional Date (753 BC): The Varronian date used by Roman writers. (The Oxford Classical Dictionary)
   • Archaeological Evidence (1000–700 BC): Iron Age huts on the Palatine. (The Oxford Classical Dictionary)

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
2. About 509 BC Roman Republic Founded (Traditional Date)

   Event · Rome · About 509 BC

   Romans dated the expulsion of the last king and the first consuls to 509 BC.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
3. 146 BC Carthage and Corinth Destroyed

   Event · Rome · 146 BC

   Rome destroys Carthage and Corinth and controls the Mediterranean.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
4. 49–44 BC Julius Caesar

   Ruler · Rome · 49–44 BC

   Caesar crosses the Rubicon in 49 BC and is killed on the Ides of March, 44 BC.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
   2. The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 10: The Augustan Empire, 43 BC–AD 69 (A. K. Bowman, E. Champlin, and A. Lintott (Eds.), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1996)
5. 31 BC Battle of Actium

   Event · Rome · 31 BC

   Octavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
   2. The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 10: The Augustan Empire, 43 BC–AD 69 (A. K. Bowman, E. Champlin, and A. Lintott (Eds.), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1996)
6. 27 BC–AD 14 Augustus

   Ruler · Rome · 27 BC–AD 14

   Octavian becomes Augustus, the first emperor. Luke 2:1 dates Jesus’ birth to his decree.

   Luke 2

   Sources

   1. The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 10: The Augustan Empire, 43 BC–AD 69 (A. K. Bowman, E. Champlin, and A. Lintott (Eds.), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1996)
7. AD 14–37 Tiberius

   Ruler · Rome · AD 14–37

   Tiberius is emperor during the ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus (Luke 3:1).

   Luke 3

   Sources

   1. The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 10: The Augustan Empire, 43 BC–AD 69 (A. K. Bowman, E. Champlin, and A. Lintott (Eds.), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1996)
8. AD 41–54 Claudius

   Ruler · Rome · AD 41–54

   Claudius adds Britain and, for a time, Judea as a province.

   Sources

   1. The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 10: The Augustan Empire, 43 BC–AD 69 (A. K. Bowman, E. Champlin, and A. Lintott (Eds.), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1996)
   2. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
9. About AD 49 Claudius Expels Jews From Rome

   Event · Rome · About AD 49

   Suetonius says Claudius expelled Jews who were rioting at the instigation of “Chrestus.” Acts 18:2 mentions the expulsion.

   Acts 18

   Sources

   1. The Lives of the Twelve Caesars (Suetonius, Claudius 25 and Nero 16)
   2. Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology (R. Riesner, Eerdmans, 1998)
10. AD 54–68 Nero

    Ruler · Rome · AD 54–68

    Paul appeals to Caesar under Nero (Acts 25:11). Nero’s death leads to the Year of the Four Emperors.

    Acts 25

    Sources

    1. The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 10: The Augustan Empire, 43 BC–AD 69 (A. K. Bowman, E. Champlin, and A. Lintott (Eds.), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1996)
    2. The Lives of the Twelve Caesars (Suetonius, Claudius 25 and Nero 16)
11. AD 64 The Great Fire and Nero’s Persecution

    Event · Rome · AD 64

    After the fire at Rome, Nero blames the Christians. Tacitus records their execution.

    Sources

    1. AnnalsTacitus, Annals 15.44 · Church and Brodribb, PerseusChristus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judæa, the first source of the evil, but even in RomeTacitus, Annals 15.44 · Church and Brodribb, PerseusOpen source (Tacitus, Book 15.44)
    2. The Lives of the Twelve Caesars (Suetonius, Claudius 25 and Nero 16)
12. AD 69–79 Vespasian

    Ruler · Rome · AD 69–79

    Vespasian leaves the Jewish War to his son Titus and becomes emperor.

    Sources

    1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
    2. The Jewish War (Flavius Josephus, trans. W. Whiston, 1737 (public domain))
13. AD 79 Vesuvius Buries Pompeii

    Event · Rome · AD 79

    The eruption buries Pompeii and Herculaneum. Pliny the Younger describes it.

    Sources

    1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
14. AD 81–96 Domitian

    Ruler · Rome · AD 81–96

    Domitian’s reign is the setting Irenaeus gives for Revelation.

    Sources

    1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
    2. Against HeresiesIrenaeus, Against Heresies 5.30.3 · Ante-Nicene Fathers, New AdventFor that was seen no very long time since, but almost in our day, towards the end of Domitian's reign.Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.30.3 · Ante-Nicene Fathers, New AdventOpen source (Irenaeus, Book 5.30.3)
15. AD 98–117 Trajan

    Ruler · Rome · AD 98–117

    Trajan’s letters with Pliny about Christians in Bithynia date to about AD 110.

    Sources

    1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)

Achaemenid Empire from Cyrus II to Darius III.

1. 559–530 BC Cyrus II the Great

   Ruler · Persia · 559–530 BC

   Cyrus defeats the Medes about 550 BC and Lydia about 547 BC, and founds the Achaemenid Empire.

   Sources

   1. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (P. Briant, Eisenbrauns, 2002)
2. 539 BC Cyrus Takes Babylon

   Event · Persia · 539 BC

   Cyrus’s army enters Babylon in October 539 BC, as the Nabonidus Chronicle records.

   Daniel 5

   Sources

   1. Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (A. K. Grayson, J. J. Augustin, 1975 (Chronicles 3, 5, and 7))
   2. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (P. Briant, Eisenbrauns, 2002)
3. 539 BC The Cyrus Cylinder

   Event · Persia · 539 BC

   Cyrus describes returning gods and peoples to their homes. Ezra 1 records his decree for Jerusalem.

   Ezra 1 Related Article

   Sources

   1. The Context of Scripture (W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002)
   2. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (P. Briant, Eisenbrauns, 2002)
4. 522–486 BC Darius I

   Ruler · Persia · 522–486 BC

   Darius I organizes the satrapies. His Behistun inscription is trilingual and was key to deciphering cuneiform.

   Ezra 6

   Sources

   1. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (P. Briant, Eisenbrauns, 2002)
   2. The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 4: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, c. 525–479 BC (J. Boardman et al. (Eds.), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1988)
5. 486–465 BC Xerxes I

   Ruler · Persia · 486–465 BC

   Xerxes I invades Greece in 480 BC. He is commonly identified with Ahasuerus in Esther.

   Esther 1

   Sources

   1. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (P. Briant, Eisenbrauns, 2002)
6. 465–424 BC Artaxerxes I

   Ruler · Persia · 465–424 BC

   Nehemiah serves as his cupbearer and is sent to Jerusalem in his twentieth year.

   Nehemiah 2

   Sources

   1. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (P. Briant, Eisenbrauns, 2002)
7. 331 BC Battle of Gaugamela

   Event · Persia · 331 BC

   Alexander defeats Darius III. Persepolis burns in 330 BC, and the Achaemenid Empire ends.

   Sources

   1. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (P. Briant, Eisenbrauns, 2002)
   2. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)

Successor kingdoms of Alexander, including the Seleucids and Ptolemies.

1. 312–281 BC Seleucus I

   Ruler · Hellenistic Kingdoms · 312–281 BC

   The Seleucid era begins in 312/311 BC. The dynasty rules Syria and Mesopotamia and later Judea.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
   2. The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (E. Schürer, rev. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Black, T&T Clark, 1973–1987, Vol. 1)
2. 305–282 BC Ptolemy I Rules Egypt

   Ruler · Hellenistic Kingdoms · 305–282 BC

   Ptolemy, a general of Alexander, takes the royal title. The Ptolemaic dynasty rules Egypt until 30 BC.

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
3. About 260 BC The Septuagint Begins

   Event · Hellenistic Kingdoms · About 260 BC

   The Pentateuch is translated into Greek in Alexandria in the third century BC. The Letter of Aristeas links it to Ptolemy II (285–246 BC).

   Sources

   1. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
   2. The Dead Sea Scrolls Today (J. C. VanderKam, 2nd ed., Eerdmans, 2010)

From the first Jerusalem community to the end of the first century.

1. AD 30–33 Pentecost

   Event · Early Church · AD 30–33

   The Holy Spirit comes on the disciples in Jerusalem fifty days after Passover.

   Acts 2

   Sources

   1. Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology (R. Riesner, Eerdmans, 1998)
2. About AD 33–36 Conversion of Paul

   Person · Early Church · About AD 33–36

   Paul meets the risen Jesus on the road to Damascus. Galatians 1–2 supplies the intervals that place it about AD 33–36.

   Acts 9Galatians 1

   Sources

   1. Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology (R. Riesner, Eerdmans, 1998)
3. About AD 48–49 Council of Jerusalem

   Event · Early Church · About AD 48–49

   The apostles and elders decide that Gentile believers need not be circumcised.

   Acts 15

   Sources

   1. Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology (R. Riesner, Eerdmans, 1998)
4. AD 51–52 Paul Before Gallio in Corinth

   Event · Early Church · AD 51–52

   An inscription at Delphi dates Gallio’s term as proconsul of Achaia to about AD 51–52, a fixed point for Paul’s chronology.

   Acts 18

   Sources

   1. Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology (R. Riesner, Eerdmans, 1998)
   2. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)
5. About AD 57 Paul Writes Romans

   Event · Early Church · About AD 57

   Paul writes to the church in Rome from Corinth near the end of his third journey.

   Romans 15

   Sources

   1. Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology (R. Riesner, Eerdmans, 1998)
6. About AD 95 John Writes Revelation

   Event · Early Church · About AD 95

   Irenaeus places John’s vision near the end of Domitian’s reign. Some scholars prefer a date near AD 68.

   Dating Views

   The date of Revelation affects how parts of the book are read.

   • About AD 95 (AD 95): Irenaeus places the vision near the end of Domitian’s reign. (Against Heresies)
   • About AD 68 (AD 68): Some scholars prefer a date under or just after Nero. (Redating the New Testament)

   Revelation 1

   Sources

   1. Against HeresiesIrenaeus, Against Heresies 5.30.3 · Ante-Nicene Fathers, New AdventFor that was seen no very long time since, but almost in our day, towards the end of Domitian's reign.Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.30.3 · Ante-Nicene Fathers, New AdventOpen source (Irenaeus, Book 5.30.3)
   2. Redating the New Testament (J. A. T. Robinson, SCM Press, 1976)