{"schema":"apologetics-wiki/timeline@1","title":"Timeline of World and Biblical History","yearNote":"Years are signed historical years: negative is BC, positive is AD. There is no year zero.","range":{"start":-3100,"end":100},"eras":[{"id":"early-bronze","label":"Early Bronze Age","start":-3000,"end":-2000},{"id":"middle-bronze","label":"Middle Bronze Age","start":-2000,"end":-1550},{"id":"late-bronze","label":"Late Bronze Age","start":-1550,"end":-1150},{"id":"iron-age","label":"Iron Age Kingdoms","start":-1200,"end":-539},{"id":"persian-hellenistic","label":"Persian and Hellenistic","start":-560,"end":-60},{"id":"roman","label":"Rome and the New Testament","start":-70,"end":100}],"streams":[{"id":"egypt","name":"Egypt","start":-3000,"end":-30,"lane":0,"color":1,"parent":null,"mergesInto":"rome","note":"Early Dynastic Period to the death of Cleopatra VII.","sources":["shaw","hornung"]},{"id":"sumer","name":"Sumer","start":-3000,"end":-2004,"lane":1,"color":4,"parent":null,"mergesInto":"babylon","note":"Early Dynastic city-states to the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur.","sources":["vdm","cah1"]},{"id":"akkad","name":"Akkad","start":-2334,"end":-2154,"lane":2,"color":5,"parent":"sumer","mergesInto":"sumer","note":"Middle chronology. Lower dates are possible on other chronologies.","sources":["vdm","kuhrt"]},{"id":"assyria","name":"Assyria","start":-2025,"end":-609,"lane":2,"color":6,"parent":null,"mergesInto":"babylon","note":"Old, Middle, and Neo-Assyrian periods.","sources":["vdm","cah3"]},{"id":"babylon","name":"Babylonia","start":-1894,"end":-539,"lane":3,"color":0,"parent":null,"mergesInto":"persia","note":"Old Babylonian, Kassite, and Neo-Babylonian periods (middle chronology).","sources":["vdm","grayson"]},{"id":"hittites","name":"Hittites","start":-1650,"end":-1180,"lane":4,"color":3,"parent":null,"mergesInto":null,"note":"Old Kingdom and Empire, ending in the Late Bronze Age collapse.","sources":["bryce"]},{"id":"patriarchs","name":"Patriarchs (Dates Disputed)","start":-2100,"end":-1700,"lane":5,"color":7,"parent":null,"mergesInto":"israel","note":"The Genesis narratives give no fixed calendar date. The band marks the range the views below propose, not a single date.","sources":["kitchen","merrill"]},{"id":"israel","name":"Israel","start":-1210,"end":-931,"lane":5,"color":7,"parent":null,"mergesInto":null,"note":"From the first outside mention (Merneptah Stele) to the division of the kingdom.","sources":["mazar","thiele"]},{"id":"north","name":"Kingdom of Israel","start":-931,"end":-722,"lane":6,"color":2,"parent":"israel","mergesInto":"assyria","note":"Northern kingdom, capital Samaria from Omri. Dates follow Thiele.","sources":["thiele"]},{"id":"judah","name":"Judah and Judea","start":-931,"end":70,"lane":5,"color":7,"parent":"israel","mergesInto":null,"note":"Kingdom of Judah, exile, Persian Yehud, Hasmonean and Herodian Judea, to the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70.","sources":["thiele","schurer"]},{"id":"persia","name":"Persia","start":-550,"end":-330,"lane":4,"color":4,"parent":null,"mergesInto":"hellenistic","note":"Achaemenid Empire from Cyrus II to Darius III.","sources":["briant","cah4"]},{"id":"greece","name":"Greece","start":-1600,"end":-323,"lane":7,"color":0,"parent":null,"mergesInto":"hellenistic","note":"Mycenaean palaces, then the Archaic and Classical city-states and Macedon.","sources":["ocd"]},{"id":"hellenistic","name":"Hellenistic Kingdoms","start":-323,"end":-30,"lane":4,"color":5,"parent":null,"mergesInto":"rome","note":"Successor kingdoms of Alexander, including the Seleucids and Ptolemies.","sources":["ocd"]},{"id":"rome","name":"Rome","start":-753,"end":100,"lane":8,"color":6,"parent":null,"mergesInto":null,"note":"The founding date is the traditional (Varronian) date. Settlement on the Palatine is older.","sources":["ocd","cah10"]},{"id":"church","name":"Early Church","start":30,"end":100,"lane":6,"color":3,"parent":"judah","mergesInto":null,"note":"From the first Jerusalem community to the end of the first century.","sources":["riesner","kjv"]}],"events":[{"id":"narmer","stream":"egypt","kind":"ruler","start":-3000,"title":"Narmer and the Unification of Egypt","summary":"The Narmer Palette shows a king of the First Dynasty wearing the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. The Early Dynastic Period is dated about 3000 to 2686 BC.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"}]},{"id":"djoser","stream":"egypt","kind":"ruler","start":-2667,"title":"Djoser and the Step Pyramid","summary":"The Third Dynasty king Djoser built the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, the first large stone pyramid.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"}],"end":-2648},{"id":"khufu","stream":"egypt","kind":"ruler","start":-2589,"title":"Khufu and the Great Pyramid","summary":"The Fourth Dynasty king Khufu built the Great Pyramid at Giza.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"},{"id":"hornung"}],"end":-2566},{"id":"fip","stream":"egypt","kind":"event","start":-2160,"title":"First Intermediate Period","summary":"Royal power splits between rival centers after the Old Kingdom.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"}],"end":-2055},{"id":"mentuhotep","stream":"egypt","kind":"ruler","start":-2055,"title":"Mentuhotep II Reunites Egypt","summary":"Mentuhotep II of Thebes reunites the country and begins the Middle Kingdom (about 2055–1650 BC).","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"}],"end":-2004},{"id":"benihasan","stream":"egypt","kind":"event","start":-1890,"title":"Asiatic Traders at Beni Hasan","summary":"The tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan shows a group of Asiatic traders arriving in Egypt in year 6 of Senusret II. It is often cited as a picture of the world of the Genesis narratives.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"kitchen"},{"id":"hoffmeier"}],"bible":[{"book":"genesis","chapter":46}]},{"id":"hyksos","stream":"egypt","kind":"event","start":-1650,"title":"Hyksos Rule in the Delta","summary":"Rulers of western Asian origin (the Fifteenth Dynasty) govern the Nile Delta from Avaris during the Second Intermediate Period.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"},{"id":"hoffmeier"}],"end":-1550},{"id":"ahmose","stream":"egypt","kind":"ruler","start":-1550,"title":"Ahmose I Expels the Hyksos","summary":"Ahmose I drives out the Hyksos and founds the Eighteenth Dynasty and the New Kingdom (about 1550–1069 BC).","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"}],"end":-1525},{"id":"hatshepsut","stream":"egypt","kind":"ruler","start":-1473,"title":"Hatshepsut","summary":"Hatshepsut rules as pharaoh and builds her temple at Deir el-Bahri.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"}],"end":-1458},{"id":"thutmose3","stream":"egypt","kind":"ruler","start":-1479,"title":"Thutmose III","summary":"Thutmose III campaigns in Canaan and Syria. His annals describe the Battle of Megiddo early in his sole reign.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"},{"id":"cos"}],"end":-1425},{"id":"amarna","stream":"egypt","kind":"event","start":-1360,"title":"The Amarna Letters","summary":"Clay tablets from Akhenaten’s capital record letters between Egypt, the great powers, and Canaanite city rulers, including the ruler of Jerusalem.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"moran"},{"id":"shaw"}],"end":-1332},{"id":"akhenaten","stream":"egypt","kind":"ruler","start":-1352,"title":"Akhenaten","summary":"Akhenaten promotes the worship of the Aten and moves the capital to Amarna.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"}],"end":-1336},{"id":"tut","stream":"egypt","kind":"ruler","start":-1336,"title":"Tutankhamun","summary":"The young king restores the older cults. His nearly intact tomb was found in 1922.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"}],"end":-1327},{"id":"ramesses2","stream":"egypt","kind":"ruler","start":-1279,"title":"Ramesses II","summary":"Ramesses II builds Pi-Ramesses in the Delta. The late date for the Exodus places it in his reign (Exodus 1:11 names the store city Raamses).","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"},{"id":"kitchen"}],"end":-1213,"bible":[{"book":"exodus","chapter":1}]},{"id":"merneptah","stream":"egypt","kind":"event","start":-1208,"title":"The Merneptah Stele","summary":"A victory hymn of Merneptah, year 5, lists “Israel” as a people in Canaan. It is the earliest outside mention of Israel.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"cos"},{"id":"shaw"},{"id":"kitchen"}],"articles":["/christianity/does-archaeology-confirm-the-bible"]},{"id":"seapeoples","stream":"egypt","kind":"event","start":-1177,"title":"Ramesses III Fights the Sea Peoples","summary":"Reliefs at Medinet Habu record Ramesses III’s battle with the Sea Peoples, among them the Peleset (Philistines), in his year 8.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"},{"id":"cos"}],"bible":[{"book":"judges","chapter":13}]},{"id":"shoshenq","stream":"egypt","kind":"ruler","start":-925,"title":"Shoshenq I Campaigns in Canaan","summary":"Shoshenq I (Shishak) lists towns in Judah and Israel on a relief at Karnak. 1 Kings 14:25 dates Shishak’s attack to Rehoboam’s fifth year.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"},{"id":"kitchen"},{"id":"thiele"}],"bible":[{"book":"1-kings","chapter":14}],"articles":["/christianity/does-archaeology-confirm-the-bible"]},{"id":"necho","stream":"egypt","kind":"ruler","start":-610,"title":"Necho II","summary":"Necho II marches north to aid Assyria. Josiah of Judah dies at Megiddo opposing him in 609 BC.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"shaw"},{"id":"grayson"}],"end":-595,"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":23}]},{"id":"carchemish","stream":"babylon","kind":"event","start":-605,"title":"Battle of Carchemish","summary":"Nebuchadnezzar defeats Necho II. The Babylonian Chronicle and Jeremiah 46:2 both record it.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"grayson"}],"bible":[{"book":"jeremiah","chapter":46}]},{"id":"cambyses","stream":"egypt","kind":"event","start":-525,"title":"Persian Conquest of Egypt","summary":"Cambyses II conquers Egypt and begins the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"briant"},{"id":"shaw"}]},{"id":"ptolemy1","stream":"hellenistic","kind":"ruler","start":-305,"title":"Ptolemy I Rules Egypt","summary":"Ptolemy, a general of Alexander, takes the royal title. The Ptolemaic dynasty rules Egypt until 30 BC.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"}],"end":-282},{"id":"septuagint","stream":"hellenistic","kind":"event","start":-260,"title":"The Septuagint Begins","summary":"The Pentateuch is translated into Greek in Alexandria in the third century BC. The Letter of Aristeas links it to Ptolemy II (285–246 BC).","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"},{"id":"vanderkam"}]},{"id":"cleopatra","stream":"egypt","kind":"ruler","start":-51,"title":"Cleopatra VII","summary":"The last Ptolemaic ruler dies after Actium, and Egypt becomes a Roman province in 30 BC.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"},{"id":"shaw"}],"end":-30},{"id":"uruk","stream":"sumer","kind":"event","start":-3100,"title":"Earliest Writing at Uruk","summary":"Archaic tablets from Uruk record administrative accounts in proto-cuneiform, about 3300–3000 BC.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"}]},{"id":"edynastic","stream":"sumer","kind":"event","start":-2900,"title":"Early Dynastic Sumer","summary":"City-states such as Ur, Uruk, Lagash, and Kish compete for land and water.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"},{"id":"cah1"}],"end":-2350},{"id":"royalcem","stream":"sumer","kind":"event","start":-2600,"title":"Royal Cemetery of Ur","summary":"Rich burials at Ur, excavated by Leonard Woolley, date to the mid-third millennium BC.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"}]},{"id":"sargon","stream":"akkad","kind":"ruler","start":-2334,"title":"Sargon of Akkad","summary":"Sargon unites Sumer and Akkad in the first large territorial state of Mesopotamia.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"},{"id":"kuhrt"}],"end":-2279},{"id":"naramsin","stream":"akkad","kind":"ruler","start":-2254,"title":"Naram-Sin","summary":"Sargon’s grandson takes the title “king of the four quarters” and claims divinity.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"}],"end":-2218},{"id":"urnammu","stream":"sumer","kind":"ruler","start":-2112,"title":"Ur-Nammu and the Third Dynasty of Ur","summary":"Ur-Nammu founds the Third Dynasty of Ur, builds the ziggurat of Ur, and issues one of the earliest law collections.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"},{"id":"kuhrt"}],"end":-2095},{"id":"shulgi","stream":"sumer","kind":"ruler","start":-2094,"title":"Shulgi","summary":"Shulgi of Ur reorganizes the state and its administration.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"}],"end":-2047},{"id":"fallur","stream":"sumer","kind":"event","start":-2004,"title":"Fall of Ur","summary":"Elamites sack Ur and end the Third Dynasty. The Lament for Ur mourns the city.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"},{"id":"kuhrt"}]},{"id":"oldassyria","stream":"assyria","kind":"event","start":-1950,"title":"Assyrian Trade at Kanesh","summary":"Merchants from Assur trade tin and textiles in Anatolia. Thousands of letters were found at Kültepe (Kanesh).","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"},{"id":"kuhrt"}],"end":-1750},{"id":"shamshiadad","stream":"assyria","kind":"ruler","start":-1808,"title":"Shamshi-Adad I","summary":"Shamshi-Adad builds a kingdom across northern Mesopotamia.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"}],"end":-1776},{"id":"hammurabi","stream":"babylon","kind":"ruler","start":-1792,"title":"Hammurabi of Babylon","summary":"Hammurabi makes Babylon the leading power in southern Mesopotamia. His law stele dates near the end of his reign.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"},{"id":"kuhrt"},{"id":"cos"}],"end":-1750},{"id":"atrahasis","stream":"babylon","kind":"event","start":-1640,"title":"The Atrahasis Epic Is Copied","summary":"An Old Babylonian copy of the Atrahasis epic, dated to the reign of Ammi-saduqa, tells of a great flood and a man who builds a boat.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"lambert"}],"bible":[{"book":"genesis","chapter":6}]},{"id":"hittitesack","stream":"babylon","kind":"event","start":-1595,"title":"Hittites Sack Babylon","summary":"Mursili I raids Babylon and ends the First Dynasty. The Kassites then rule Babylonia for about four centuries.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"bryce"},{"id":"vdm"}]},{"id":"hattusili","stream":"hittites","kind":"ruler","start":-1650,"title":"Hattusili I","summary":"Hattusili I founds the Hittite Old Kingdom with its capital at Hattusa.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"bryce"}]},{"id":"suppiluliuma","stream":"hittites","kind":"ruler","start":-1350,"title":"Suppiluliuma I","summary":"Suppiluliuma I makes the Hittites the leading power in Syria.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"bryce"}],"end":-1322},{"id":"kadesh","stream":"hittites","kind":"event","start":-1274,"title":"Battle of Kadesh","summary":"Muwatalli II and Ramesses II fight at Kadesh on the Orontes. Both sides claim success.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"bryce"},{"id":"shaw"}]},{"id":"treaty","stream":"hittites","kind":"event","start":-1259,"title":"Egyptian–Hittite Peace Treaty","summary":"Ramesses II and Hattusili III make the earliest peace treaty that survives in both parties’ versions.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"bryce"},{"id":"cos"}]},{"id":"collapse","stream":"hittites","kind":"event","start":-1180,"title":"Late Bronze Age Collapse","summary":"Hattusa is abandoned. Palace states across the eastern Mediterranean fall about 1200–1150 BC.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"bryce"},{"id":"mazar"}]},{"id":"ashuruballit","stream":"assyria","kind":"ruler","start":-1363,"title":"Ashur-uballit I","summary":"Ashur-uballit I makes Assyria a great power and writes to Egypt (Amarna letters).","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"},{"id":"moran"}],"end":-1328},{"id":"tiglath1","stream":"assyria","kind":"ruler","start":-1114,"title":"Tiglath-Pileser I","summary":"Tiglath-Pileser I campaigns to the Mediterranean.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"}],"end":-1076},{"id":"ashurnasirpal","stream":"assyria","kind":"ruler","start":-883,"title":"Ashurnasirpal II","summary":"Ashurnasirpal II builds a new capital at Kalhu (Nimrud).","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"},{"id":"cah3"}],"end":-859},{"id":"qarqar","stream":"assyria","kind":"event","start":-853,"title":"Battle of Qarqar","summary":"Shalmaneser III’s Kurkh Monolith lists “Ahab the Israelite” with 2,000 chariots among the allies who opposed him.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"cos"},{"id":"thiele"}],"bible":[{"book":"1-kings","chapter":22}],"articles":["/christianity/does-archaeology-confirm-the-bible"]},{"id":"blackobelisk","stream":"assyria","kind":"event","start":-841,"title":"Jehu Pays Tribute to Shalmaneser III","summary":"The Black Obelisk shows the tribute of “Jehu, son of Omri.” The date fixes a point in Israel’s chronology.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"cos"},{"id":"thiele"}],"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":10}],"articles":["/christianity/does-archaeology-confirm-the-bible"]},{"id":"tiglath3","stream":"assyria","kind":"ruler","start":-745,"title":"Tiglath-Pileser III","summary":"Tiglath-Pileser III (Pul) takes tribute from Menahem and annexes much of Israel’s territory.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"},{"id":"thiele"}],"end":-727,"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":15}]},{"id":"samaria","stream":"north","kind":"event","start":-722,"title":"Fall of Samaria","summary":"Samaria falls after a siege begun by Shalmaneser V. Sargon II claims its capture and the deportation of 27,290 people. Thiele dates the fall to 723/722 BC.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"},{"id":"cos"}],"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":17}]},{"id":"sennacherib","stream":"assyria","kind":"event","start":-701,"title":"Sennacherib’s Campaign Against Judah","summary":"Sennacherib takes Lachish and shuts up Hezekiah in Jerusalem “like a bird in a cage.” Reliefs at Nineveh show the siege of Lachish.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"cos"},{"id":"mazar"}],"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":18},{"book":"isaiah","chapter":36}],"articles":["/christianity/does-archaeology-confirm-the-bible"]},{"id":"ashurbanipal","stream":"assyria","kind":"ruler","start":-668,"title":"Ashurbanipal","summary":"Ashurbanipal’s library at Nineveh preserved thousands of tablets, including the Epic of Gilgamesh.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vdm"}],"end":-631},{"id":"nineveh","stream":"assyria","kind":"event","start":-612,"title":"Fall of Nineveh","summary":"Babylonians and Medes destroy Nineveh. The Babylonian Chronicle records the fall. Nahum foretells it.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"grayson"}],"bible":[{"book":"nahum","chapter":3}]},{"id":"harran","stream":"assyria","kind":"event","start":-609,"title":"End of Assyria at Harran","summary":"The last Assyrian king loses Harran, and the empire ends.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"grayson"},{"id":"vdm"}]},{"id":"nabopolassar","stream":"babylon","kind":"ruler","start":-626,"title":"Nabopolassar","summary":"Nabopolassar founds the Neo-Babylonian dynasty.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"grayson"},{"id":"vdm"}],"end":-605},{"id":"nebuchadnezzar","stream":"babylon","kind":"ruler","start":-605,"title":"Nebuchadnezzar II","summary":"Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilds Babylon and conquers Judah.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"grayson"},{"id":"vdm"}],"end":-562,"bible":[{"book":"daniel","chapter":1}]},{"id":"jerusalem597","stream":"babylon","kind":"event","start":-597,"title":"Jerusalem Captured, 16 March 597 BC","summary":"The Babylonian Chronicle dates the capture of Jerusalem to 2 Adar of Nebuchadnezzar’s seventh year. Jehoiachin is taken to Babylon.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"grayson"},{"id":"thiele"}],"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":24}]},{"id":"nabonidus","stream":"babylon","kind":"ruler","start":-556,"title":"Nabonidus and Belshazzar","summary":"Nabonidus leaves his son Belshazzar in charge at Babylon for years while he stays at Tayma, as the Nabonidus Chronicle records.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"grayson"},{"id":"cos"}],"end":-539,"bible":[{"book":"daniel","chapter":5}]},{"id":"fallbabylon","stream":"persia","kind":"event","start":-539,"title":"Cyrus Takes Babylon","summary":"Cyrus’s army enters Babylon in October 539 BC, as the Nabonidus Chronicle records.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"grayson"},{"id":"briant"}],"bible":[{"book":"daniel","chapter":5}]},{"id":"cyrus","stream":"persia","kind":"ruler","start":-559,"title":"Cyrus II the Great","summary":"Cyrus defeats the Medes about 550 BC and Lydia about 547 BC, and founds the Achaemenid Empire.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"briant"}],"end":-530},{"id":"cylinder","stream":"persia","kind":"event","start":-539,"title":"The Cyrus Cylinder","summary":"Cyrus describes returning gods and peoples to their homes. Ezra 1 records his decree for Jerusalem.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"cos"},{"id":"briant"}],"bible":[{"book":"ezra","chapter":1}],"articles":["/christianity/does-archaeology-confirm-the-bible"]},{"id":"darius1","stream":"persia","kind":"ruler","start":-522,"title":"Darius I","summary":"Darius I organizes the satrapies. His Behistun inscription is trilingual and was key to deciphering cuneiform.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"briant"},{"id":"cah4"}],"end":-486,"bible":[{"book":"ezra","chapter":6}]},{"id":"xerxes","stream":"persia","kind":"ruler","start":-486,"title":"Xerxes I","summary":"Xerxes I invades Greece in 480 BC. He is commonly identified with Ahasuerus in Esther.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"briant"}],"end":-465,"bible":[{"book":"esther","chapter":1}]},{"id":"artaxerxes1","stream":"persia","kind":"ruler","start":-465,"title":"Artaxerxes I","summary":"Nehemiah serves as his cupbearer and is sent to Jerusalem in his twentieth year.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"briant"}],"end":-424,"bible":[{"book":"nehemiah","chapter":2}]},{"id":"gaugamela","stream":"persia","kind":"event","start":-331,"title":"Battle of Gaugamela","summary":"Alexander defeats Darius III. Persepolis burns in 330 BC, and the Achaemenid Empire ends.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"briant"},{"id":"ocd"}]},{"id":"abraham","stream":"patriarchs","kind":"person","start":-2100,"title":"Abraham","summary":"God calls Abraham from Ur and Harran to Canaan. There is no outside record of him, and the date depends on the view taken.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"kitchen"},{"id":"merrill"}],"end":-1800,"bible":[{"book":"genesis","chapter":12},{"book":"genesis","chapter":15}],"disputed":{"note":"The patriarchal narratives give ages and intervals but no anchor outside the Bible.","views":[{"label":"Early Chronology","start":-2166,"end":-1991,"text":"Adds the Masoretic figures to an early Exodus, giving Abraham’s birth in 2166 BC.","sources":["merrill"]},{"label":"Middle Bronze Age Setting","start":-2000,"end":-1800,"text":"Compares names, treaty forms, and slave prices with early second-millennium texts.","sources":["kitchen"]},{"label":"Critical View","text":"Treats the narratives as later traditions that cannot be dated as history.","sources":["finkelstein"]},{"label":"Ussher (Traditional)","start":-1996,"end":-1996,"text":"Ussher’s date for Abraham’s birth. A traditional view, not a scholarly date.","sources":["ussher"]}]}},{"id":"joseph","stream":"patriarchs","kind":"person","start":-1900,"title":"Joseph in Egypt","summary":"Joseph rises to high office in Egypt. Proposed settings range from the Middle Kingdom to the Hyksos period.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"kitchen"},{"id":"hoffmeier"}],"end":-1700,"bible":[{"book":"genesis","chapter":41}]},{"id":"flood","stream":"sumer","kind":"event","start":-2900,"title":"Flood Traditions and Flood Layers","summary":"Genesis 6–9 tells of the Flood. Mesopotamian texts (Atrahasis, Gilgamesh XI, the Sumerian King List) also remember a great flood. Woolley and Mallowan linked river flood deposits at Ur and Shuruppak to those traditions.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"mallowan"},{"id":"lambert"}],"bible":[{"book":"genesis","chapter":7}],"disputed":{"note":"No archaeological layer can be tied to the Flood of Genesis. The views differ on the kind of event, not only the date.","views":[{"label":"Mesopotamian Flood Layers","start":-2900,"end":-2900,"text":"Mallowan linked a flood deposit at Shuruppak, near the end of the Jemdet Nasr period, to the Mesopotamian flood tradition. Woolley’s Ur deposit is earlier.","sources":["mallowan"]},{"label":"Undated Primeval History","text":"Many scholars, conservative and critical, hold that Genesis 1–11 does not supply a datable chronology.","sources":["kitchen"]},{"label":"Ussher (Traditional)","start":-2348,"end":-2348,"text":"Ussher’s date, from the Masoretic ages in Genesis 5 and 11. A traditional view, not a scholarly date. The Septuagint ages give a much earlier date.","sources":["ussher"]}]}},{"id":"exodus","stream":"israel","kind":"event","start":-1446,"title":"The Exodus","summary":"Israel leaves Egypt under Moses. The two main scholarly dates are about 1446 BC and about 1270–1260 BC.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"kitchen"},{"id":"hoffmeier"},{"id":"merrill"}],"end":-1260,"bible":[{"book":"exodus","chapter":12},{"book":"exodus","chapter":14},{"book":"1-kings","chapter":6}],"disputed":{"note":"The date of the Exodus is one of the most debated questions in biblical chronology.","views":[{"label":"Early Date","start":-1446,"end":-1446,"text":"Counts 480 years back from Solomon’s fourth year (1 Kings 6:1), using Thiele’s 966 BC.","sources":["merrill","thiele"]},{"label":"Late Date","start":-1270,"end":-1260,"text":"Reads the 480 years as a schematic figure and sets the Exodus under Ramesses II, after the building of Pi-Ramesses (Exodus 1:11).","sources":["kitchen","hoffmeier"]},{"label":"Critical View","start":-1200,"end":-1100,"text":"Many archaeologists find no evidence of a large exodus and treat Israel as emerging largely within Canaan in Iron Age I.","sources":["finkelstein"]},{"label":"Ussher (Traditional)","start":-1491,"end":-1491,"text":"Ussher’s 1650 chronology. A traditional view, not a scholarly date.","sources":["ussher"]}]}},{"id":"judges","stream":"israel","kind":"event","start":-1200,"title":"Period of the Judges","summary":"Israel settles in the central hill country. Archaeology records many new small villages there in Iron Age I.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"mazar"},{"id":"finkelstein"}],"end":-1050,"bible":[{"book":"judges","chapter":2}]},{"id":"saul","stream":"israel","kind":"ruler","start":-1050,"title":"Saul","summary":"Saul is the first king of Israel. 1 Samuel 13:1 does not preserve his age and reign length clearly, so his dates are approximate.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"},{"id":"kitchen"}],"end":-1010,"bible":[{"book":"1-samuel","chapter":10}]},{"id":"david","stream":"israel","kind":"ruler","start":-1010,"title":"David","summary":"David takes Jerusalem and makes it his capital. The Tel Dan Stele names the “House of David” about 150 years later.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"},{"id":"kitchen"}],"end":-970,"bible":[{"book":"2-samuel","chapter":5}]},{"id":"solomon","stream":"israel","kind":"ruler","start":-970,"title":"Solomon","summary":"Solomon reigns forty years (1 Kings 11:42). Thiele dates his reign to 970–931 BC.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"}],"end":-931,"bible":[{"book":"1-kings","chapter":11}]},{"id":"temple1","stream":"israel","kind":"event","start":-966,"title":"Solomon Begins the Temple","summary":"1 Kings 6:1 dates the temple’s founding to Solomon’s fourth year, 480 years after the Exodus.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"},{"id":"ussher"}],"bible":[{"book":"1-kings","chapter":6}],"disputed":{"note":"The founding date follows from the dates given to Solomon’s reign.","views":[{"label":"Thiele","start":-966,"end":-966,"text":"Solomon’s fourth year on Thiele’s chronology.","sources":["thiele"]},{"label":"Ussher (Traditional)","start":-1012,"end":-1012,"text":"Ussher’s 1650 date. A traditional view, not a scholarly date.","sources":["ussher"]}]}},{"id":"division","stream":"north","kind":"event","start":-931,"title":"The Kingdom Divides","summary":"Israel splits into a northern kingdom under Jeroboam I and Judah under Rehoboam.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"},{"id":"albright"}],"bible":[{"book":"1-kings","chapter":12}],"disputed":{"note":"Dates for the kings depend on how coregencies and calendar systems are reconstructed.","views":[{"label":"Thiele","start":-931,"end":-931,"text":"Thiele’s chronology, anchored by Qarqar (853 BC) and Jehu’s tribute (841 BC).","sources":["thiele"]},{"label":"Albright","start":-922,"end":-922,"text":"Albright shortened some reigns and dated the division to 922 BC.","sources":["albright"]}]}},{"id":"jeroboam1","stream":"north","kind":"ruler","start":-931,"title":"Jeroboam I","summary":"Jeroboam I sets up golden calves at Bethel and Dan.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"}],"end":-910,"bible":[{"book":"1-kings","chapter":12}]},{"id":"omri","stream":"north","kind":"ruler","start":-885,"title":"Omri","summary":"Omri founds Samaria. Assyrian texts call Israel the “House of Omri.”","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"},{"id":"cos"}],"end":-874,"bible":[{"book":"1-kings","chapter":16}]},{"id":"ahab","stream":"north","kind":"ruler","start":-874,"title":"Ahab and Elijah","summary":"Ahab rules with Jezebel. Elijah confronts the prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"}],"end":-853,"bible":[{"book":"1-kings","chapter":18}]},{"id":"mesha","stream":"north","kind":"event","start":-840,"title":"The Mesha Stele","summary":"King Mesha of Moab records his revolt against Israel and names Omri. 2 Kings 3 tells of the same revolt.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"cos"},{"id":"kitchen"}],"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":3}],"articles":["/christianity/does-archaeology-confirm-the-bible"]},{"id":"teldan","stream":"north","kind":"event","start":-840,"title":"The Tel Dan Stele","summary":"An Aramean king’s inscription, about the mid-ninth century BC, names the “king of Israel” and the “House of David.”","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"biran"},{"id":"kitchen"}],"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":9}],"articles":["/christianity/does-archaeology-confirm-the-bible"]},{"id":"jehu","stream":"north","kind":"ruler","start":-841,"title":"Jehu","summary":"Jehu overthrows the house of Ahab and pays tribute to Shalmaneser III.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"}],"end":-814,"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":9}]},{"id":"jeroboam2","stream":"north","kind":"ruler","start":-793,"title":"Jeroboam II, Amos, and Hosea","summary":"Israel prospers under Jeroboam II. Amos and Hosea prophesy in this reign.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"}],"end":-753,"bible":[{"book":"amos","chapter":1},{"book":"hosea","chapter":1}]},{"id":"hoshea","stream":"north","kind":"ruler","start":-732,"title":"Hoshea","summary":"Hoshea is the last king of Israel.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"}],"end":-723,"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":17}]},{"id":"rehoboam","stream":"judah","kind":"ruler","start":-931,"title":"Rehoboam","summary":"Solomon’s son loses the northern tribes and faces Shishak’s invasion.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"}],"end":-913,"bible":[{"book":"1-kings","chapter":14}]},{"id":"isaiah","stream":"judah","kind":"person","start":-740,"title":"Isaiah","summary":"Isaiah prophesies from the year Uzziah died through Hezekiah’s reign.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"}],"end":-686,"bible":[{"book":"isaiah","chapter":6}]},{"id":"hezekiah","stream":"judah","kind":"ruler","start":-716,"title":"Hezekiah","summary":"Hezekiah reforms worship and withstands Sennacherib. Thiele dates his sole reign from 716/715 BC.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"}],"end":-686,"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":18}]},{"id":"siloam","stream":"judah","kind":"event","start":-701,"title":"Hezekiah’s Tunnel and the Siloam Inscription","summary":"A water tunnel cut under Jerusalem carries a Hebrew inscription that describes the two crews meeting. 2 Kings 20:20 credits Hezekiah with the conduit.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"cos"},{"id":"mazar"}],"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":20}],"articles":["/christianity/does-archaeology-confirm-the-bible"]},{"id":"josiah","stream":"judah","kind":"ruler","start":-640,"title":"Josiah","summary":"Josiah’s reform follows the finding of the Book of the Law in the temple (621 BC by Thiele). He dies at Megiddo in 609 BC.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"}],"end":-609,"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":22}]},{"id":"jeremiah","stream":"judah","kind":"person","start":-627,"title":"Jeremiah","summary":"Jeremiah prophesies from Josiah’s thirteenth year to after the fall of Jerusalem.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"}],"end":-580,"bible":[{"book":"jeremiah","chapter":1}]},{"id":"fall586","stream":"judah","kind":"event","start":-587,"title":"Destruction of Jerusalem and the First Temple","summary":"Nebuchadnezzar’s army burns the temple in Zedekiah’s eleventh year. Scholars date this to 587 or 586 BC.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"thiele"},{"id":"finegan"}],"end":-586,"bible":[{"book":"2-kings","chapter":25},{"book":"jeremiah","chapter":52}],"disputed":{"note":"The difference turns on whether Judah counted regnal years from spring or autumn.","views":[{"label":"586 BC","start":-586,"end":-586,"text":"Thiele and many others, reading Judah’s regnal year from autumn.","sources":["thiele"]},{"label":"587 BC","start":-587,"end":-587,"text":"Other scholars, using a spring new year.","sources":["finegan"]}]}},{"id":"daniel","stream":"judah","kind":"person","start":-605,"title":"Daniel in Babylon","summary":"Daniel is taken to Babylon in Jehoiakim’s third year and serves until the reign of Cyrus. The date of the book’s composition is disputed.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"finegan"},{"id":"kitchen"},{"id":"collins"}],"end":-536,"bible":[{"book":"daniel","chapter":1}],"articles":["/christianity/what-does-daniel-2-43-mean"],"disputed":{"note":"The setting of the stories and the date of the book’s composition are separate questions.","views":[{"label":"Sixth-Century Composition","start":-605,"end":-536,"text":"Holds that the book comes from the exile and early Persian period.","sources":["kitchen"]},{"label":"Second-Century Composition","start":-167,"end":-164,"text":"Dates the final form to the crisis under Antiochus IV.","sources":["collins"]}]}},{"id":"ezekiel","stream":"judah","kind":"person","start":-593,"title":"Ezekiel","summary":"Ezekiel prophesies among the exiles. His visions are dated by the years of Jehoiachin’s exile.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"finegan"}],"end":-571,"bible":[{"book":"ezekiel","chapter":1}]},{"id":"return","stream":"judah","kind":"event","start":-538,"title":"First Return From Exile","summary":"After Cyrus’s decree, exiles return to Jerusalem under Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"briant"},{"id":"finegan"}],"bible":[{"book":"ezra","chapter":1}]},{"id":"temple2","stream":"judah","kind":"event","start":-515,"title":"Second Temple Completed","summary":"Ezra 6:15 dates the completion to the sixth year of Darius I.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"finegan"},{"id":"briant"}],"bible":[{"book":"ezra","chapter":6},{"book":"haggai","chapter":1}]},{"id":"ezra","stream":"judah","kind":"person","start":-458,"title":"Ezra Comes to Jerusalem","summary":"Ezra 7:7 dates his journey to the seventh year of Artaxerxes. Most date it to Artaxerxes I (458 BC). Some prefer Artaxerxes II (398 BC).","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"finegan"},{"id":"williamson"}],"bible":[{"book":"ezra","chapter":7}],"disputed":{"note":"Ezra 7:7 names Artaxerxes but not which king of that name.","views":[{"label":"Artaxerxes I","start":-458,"end":-458,"text":"The traditional order: Ezra before Nehemiah.","sources":["finegan"]},{"label":"Artaxerxes II","start":-398,"end":-398,"text":"Places Ezra after Nehemiah.","sources":["williamson"]}]}},{"id":"nehemiah","stream":"judah","kind":"person","start":-445,"title":"Nehemiah Rebuilds the Walls","summary":"Nehemiah comes in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes I and rebuilds Jerusalem’s walls.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"finegan"},{"id":"briant"}],"bible":[{"book":"nehemiah","chapter":2}]},{"id":"malachi","stream":"judah","kind":"person","start":-450,"title":"Malachi","summary":"The last book of the Minor Prophets is usually set in the Persian period, near the time of Ezra and Nehemiah.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"kitchen"}],"bible":[{"book":"malachi","chapter":1}]},{"id":"antiochus","stream":"judah","kind":"event","start":-167,"title":"Antiochus IV Desecrates the Temple","summary":"The Seleucid king Antiochus IV sets up a pagan altar in the temple in December 167 BC (1 Maccabees 1:54).","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"schurer"},{"id":"ocd"}],"bible":[{"book":"daniel","chapter":11}]},{"id":"maccabees","stream":"judah","kind":"event","start":-164,"title":"Temple Rededicated (Hanukkah)","summary":"Judas Maccabeus retakes and rededicates the temple in December 164 BC. John 10:22 names the feast.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"schurer"}],"bible":[{"book":"john","chapter":10}]},{"id":"qumran","stream":"judah","kind":"event","start":-250,"title":"The Dead Sea Scrolls Are Copied","summary":"Manuscripts found at Qumran date from about the third century BC to AD 68. They include the oldest known copies of most Old Testament books.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"vanderkam"}],"end":68,"articles":["/christianity/what-are-the-dead-sea-scrolls"]},{"id":"pompey","stream":"judah","kind":"event","start":-63,"title":"Pompey Takes Jerusalem","summary":"Pompey enters Jerusalem and the temple. Judea comes under Roman control.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"josant"},{"id":"schurer"}]},{"id":"herod","stream":"judah","kind":"ruler","start":-37,"title":"Herod the Great","summary":"Herod rules Judea as a Roman client king and rebuilds the temple, beginning about 20/19 BC.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"josant"},{"id":"schurer"}],"end":-4,"bible":[{"book":"matthew","chapter":2}],"disputed":{"note":"Josephus’s figures are usually read to place Herod’s death in 4 BC.","views":[{"label":"4 BC","start":-4,"end":-4,"text":"The majority view, tied to a lunar eclipse before Passover.","sources":["schurer"]},{"label":"1 BC","start":-1,"end":-1,"text":"A minority view tied to the eclipse of January 1 BC.","sources":["finegan"]}]}},{"id":"jesusbirth","stream":"judah","kind":"person","start":-6,"title":"Birth of Jesus","summary":"Jesus is born in Bethlehem before the death of Herod the Great (Matthew 2:1). Most scholars place the birth about 6–4 BC.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"meier"},{"id":"finegan"}],"end":-4,"bible":[{"book":"matthew","chapter":2},{"book":"luke","chapter":2}],"articles":["/christianity/did-jesus-exist"],"disputed":{"note":"Matthew sets the birth before Herod died. The calendar was later miscalculated by Dionysius Exiguus.","views":[{"label":"6–4 BC","start":-6,"end":-4,"text":"The majority view, before Herod’s death in 4 BC.","sources":["meier"]},{"label":"3–2 BC","start":-3,"end":-2,"text":"Follows the later date for Herod’s death.","sources":["finegan"]}]}},{"id":"baptist","stream":"judah","kind":"person","start":28,"title":"John the Baptist","summary":"Luke 3:1 dates John’s preaching to the fifteenth year of Tiberius, AD 28/29 on the usual reckoning.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"meier"},{"id":"hoehner"}],"end":29,"bible":[{"book":"luke","chapter":3}]},{"id":"pilate","stream":"judah","kind":"ruler","start":26,"title":"Pontius Pilate, Prefect of Judea","summary":"Pilate governs Judea. An inscription found at Caesarea in 1961 names him “prefect of Judea.”","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"schurer"},{"id":"josant"}],"end":36,"bible":[{"book":"matthew","chapter":27}],"articles":["/christianity/does-archaeology-confirm-the-bible"]},{"id":"crucifixion","stream":"judah","kind":"event","start":30,"title":"Crucifixion and Resurrection of Jesus","summary":"Jesus is crucified under Pontius Pilate at Passover and is raised on the third day. Tacitus also records the execution under Pilate.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"meier"},{"id":"hoehner"},{"id":"tacitus"}],"end":33,"bible":[{"book":"john","chapter":19},{"book":"1-corinthians","chapter":15}],"articles":["/christianity/resurrection-of-jesus"],"disputed":{"note":"Both dates fit a Friday Passover under Pilate.","views":[{"label":"AD 30","start":30,"end":30,"text":"Friday, 7 April AD 30. Favored by many historians.","sources":["meier"]},{"label":"AD 33","start":33,"end":33,"text":"Friday, 3 April AD 33. Fits a longer ministry after AD 29.","sources":["hoehner"]}]}},{"id":"pentecost","stream":"church","kind":"event","start":30,"title":"Pentecost","summary":"The Holy Spirit comes on the disciples in Jerusalem fifty days after Passover.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"riesner"}],"end":33,"bible":[{"book":"acts","chapter":2}]},{"id":"paulconv","stream":"church","kind":"person","start":33,"title":"Conversion of Paul","summary":"Paul meets the risen Jesus on the road to Damascus. Galatians 1–2 supplies the intervals that place it about AD 33–36.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"riesner"}],"end":36,"bible":[{"book":"acts","chapter":9},{"book":"galatians","chapter":1}]},{"id":"council","stream":"church","kind":"event","start":48,"title":"Council of Jerusalem","summary":"The apostles and elders decide that Gentile believers need not be circumcised.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"riesner"}],"end":49,"bible":[{"book":"acts","chapter":15}]},{"id":"claudiusedict","stream":"rome","kind":"event","start":49,"title":"Claudius Expels Jews From Rome","summary":"Suetonius says Claudius expelled Jews who were rioting at the instigation of “Chrestus.” Acts 18:2 mentions the expulsion.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"suetonius"},{"id":"riesner"}],"bible":[{"book":"acts","chapter":18}]},{"id":"gallio","stream":"church","kind":"event","start":51,"title":"Paul Before Gallio in Corinth","summary":"An inscription at Delphi dates Gallio’s term as proconsul of Achaia to about AD 51–52, a fixed point for Paul’s chronology.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"riesner"},{"id":"ocd"}],"end":52,"bible":[{"book":"acts","chapter":18}]},{"id":"romans","stream":"church","kind":"event","start":57,"title":"Paul Writes Romans","summary":"Paul writes to the church in Rome from Corinth near the end of his third journey.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"riesner"}],"bible":[{"book":"romans","chapter":15}]},{"id":"nerofire","stream":"rome","kind":"event","start":64,"title":"The Great Fire and Nero’s Persecution","summary":"After the fire at Rome, Nero blames the Christians. Tacitus records their execution.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"tacitus"},{"id":"suetonius"}]},{"id":"templefall","stream":"judah","kind":"event","start":70,"title":"Destruction of the Second Temple","summary":"Titus captures Jerusalem and burns the temple in August AD 70, as Josephus records.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"joswar"},{"id":"schurer"}],"bible":[{"book":"luke","chapter":21}]},{"id":"masada","stream":"judah","kind":"event","start":73,"title":"Fall of Masada","summary":"The last rebel stronghold falls to Rome. Josephus describes the end.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"joswar"},{"id":"schurer"}],"end":74},{"id":"revelation","stream":"church","kind":"event","start":95,"title":"John Writes Revelation","summary":"Irenaeus places John’s vision near the end of Domitian’s reign. Some scholars prefer a date near AD 68.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"irenaeus"},{"id":"robinson"}],"bible":[{"book":"revelation","chapter":1}],"disputed":{"note":"The date of Revelation affects how parts of the book are read.","views":[{"label":"About AD 95","start":95,"end":95,"text":"Irenaeus places the vision near the end of Domitian’s reign.","sources":["irenaeus"]},{"label":"About AD 68","start":68,"end":68,"text":"Some scholars prefer a date under or just after Nero.","sources":["robinson"]}]}},{"id":"mycenae","stream":"greece","kind":"event","start":-1600,"title":"Mycenaean Palaces","summary":"Palaces at Mycenae, Pylos, and Knossos keep records in Linear B, an early form of Greek.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"}],"end":-1200},{"id":"olympiad","stream":"greece","kind":"event","start":-776,"title":"First Olympiad (Traditional Date)","summary":"Greeks later counted years from the first Olympic Games, traditionally dated 776 BC.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"}]},{"id":"solon","stream":"greece","kind":"person","start":-594,"title":"Solon’s Reforms at Athens","summary":"Solon is chosen archon and reforms Athenian law.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"}]},{"id":"marathon","stream":"greece","kind":"event","start":-490,"title":"Battle of Marathon","summary":"Athens and Plataea defeat the Persian force sent by Darius I.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"cah4"},{"id":"ocd"}]},{"id":"salamis","stream":"greece","kind":"event","start":-480,"title":"Thermopylae and Salamis","summary":"Xerxes invades Greece. The Greek fleet wins at Salamis.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"cah4"},{"id":"ocd"}]},{"id":"parthenon","stream":"greece","kind":"event","start":-447,"title":"The Parthenon Is Built","summary":"Athens builds the Parthenon under Pericles.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"}],"end":-432},{"id":"peloponnesian","stream":"greece","kind":"event","start":-431,"title":"Peloponnesian War","summary":"Athens and Sparta fight a long war. Thucydides records it.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"}],"end":-404},{"id":"socrates","stream":"greece","kind":"person","start":-399,"title":"Death of Socrates","summary":"Athens condemns Socrates to death. Plato and Xenophon record his trial.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"}]},{"id":"aristotle","stream":"greece","kind":"person","start":-384,"title":"Aristotle","summary":"Aristotle studies under Plato and later tutors the young Alexander.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"}],"end":-322},{"id":"alexander","stream":"greece","kind":"ruler","start":-336,"title":"Alexander the Great","summary":"Alexander conquers the Persian Empire and dies at Babylon in 323 BC.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"},{"id":"briant"}],"end":-323,"bible":[{"book":"daniel","chapter":8}]},{"id":"seleucus","stream":"hellenistic","kind":"ruler","start":-312,"title":"Seleucus I","summary":"The Seleucid era begins in 312/311 BC. The dynasty rules Syria and Mesopotamia and later Judea.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"},{"id":"schurer"}],"end":-281},{"id":"romefound","stream":"rome","kind":"event","start":-753,"title":"Founding of Rome (Traditional Date)","summary":"Roman writers placed the founding in 753 BC. Archaeology shows huts on the Palatine from about the tenth to eighth centuries BC.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"}],"disputed":{"views":[{"label":"Traditional Date","start":-753,"end":-753,"text":"The Varronian date used by Roman writers.","sources":["ocd"]},{"label":"Archaeological Evidence","start":-1000,"end":-700,"text":"Iron Age huts on the Palatine.","sources":["ocd"]}]}},{"id":"republic","stream":"rome","kind":"event","start":-509,"title":"Roman Republic Founded (Traditional Date)","summary":"Romans dated the expulsion of the last king and the first consuls to 509 BC.","approximate":true,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"}]},{"id":"carthage","stream":"rome","kind":"event","start":-146,"title":"Carthage and Corinth Destroyed","summary":"Rome destroys Carthage and Corinth and controls the Mediterranean.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"}]},{"id":"caesar","stream":"rome","kind":"ruler","start":-49,"title":"Julius Caesar","summary":"Caesar crosses the Rubicon in 49 BC and is killed on the Ides of March, 44 BC.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"},{"id":"cah10"}],"end":-44},{"id":"actium","stream":"rome","kind":"event","start":-31,"title":"Battle of Actium","summary":"Octavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"},{"id":"cah10"}]},{"id":"augustus","stream":"rome","kind":"ruler","start":-27,"title":"Augustus","summary":"Octavian becomes Augustus, the first emperor. Luke 2:1 dates Jesus’ birth to his decree.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"cah10"}],"end":14,"bible":[{"book":"luke","chapter":2}]},{"id":"tiberius","stream":"rome","kind":"ruler","start":14,"title":"Tiberius","summary":"Tiberius is emperor during the ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus (Luke 3:1).","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"cah10"}],"end":37,"bible":[{"book":"luke","chapter":3}]},{"id":"claudius","stream":"rome","kind":"ruler","start":41,"title":"Claudius","summary":"Claudius adds Britain and, for a time, Judea as a province.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"cah10"},{"id":"ocd"}],"end":54},{"id":"nero","stream":"rome","kind":"ruler","start":54,"title":"Nero","summary":"Paul appeals to Caesar under Nero (Acts 25:11). Nero’s death leads to the Year of the Four Emperors.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"cah10"},{"id":"suetonius"}],"end":68,"bible":[{"book":"acts","chapter":25}]},{"id":"vespasian","stream":"rome","kind":"ruler","start":69,"title":"Vespasian","summary":"Vespasian leaves the Jewish War to his son Titus and becomes emperor.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"},{"id":"joswar"}],"end":79},{"id":"vesuvius","stream":"rome","kind":"event","start":79,"title":"Vesuvius Buries Pompeii","summary":"The eruption buries Pompeii and Herculaneum. Pliny the Younger describes it.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"}]},{"id":"domitian","stream":"rome","kind":"ruler","start":81,"title":"Domitian","summary":"Domitian’s reign is the setting Irenaeus gives for Revelation.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"},{"id":"irenaeus"}],"end":96},{"id":"trajan","stream":"rome","kind":"ruler","start":98,"title":"Trajan","summary":"Trajan’s letters with Pliny about Christians in Bithynia date to about AD 110.","approximate":false,"sources":[{"id":"ocd"}],"end":117}],"sources":{"cah1":{"title":"The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 1, Part 2: Early History of the Middle East","detail":"I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, and N. G. L. Hammond (Eds.), 3rd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1971","url":"https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521077910"},"cah2":{"title":"The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 2, Part 1: The Middle East and the Aegean Region, c. 1800–1380 BC","detail":"I. E. S. Edwards et al. (Eds.), 3rd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1973","url":"https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521082303"},"cah3":{"title":"The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 3, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires","detail":"J. Boardman et al. (Eds.), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1991","url":"https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521227179"},"cah4":{"title":"The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 4: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, c. 525–479 BC","detail":"J. Boardman et al. (Eds.), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1988","url":"https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521228046"},"cah10":{"title":"The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 10: The Augustan Empire, 43 BC–AD 69","detail":"A. K. Bowman, E. Champlin, and A. Lintott (Eds.), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1996","url":"https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521264303"},"shaw":{"title":"The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt","detail":"I. Shaw (Ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000, chronology"},"hornung":{"title":"Ancient Egyptian Chronology","detail":"E. Hornung, R. Krauss, and D. A. Warburton (Eds.), Brill, 2006","url":"https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047404002"},"vdm":{"title":"A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC","detail":"M. Van De Mieroop, 3rd ed., Wiley Blackwell, 2016"},"kuhrt":{"title":"The Ancient Near East, c. 3000–330 BC","detail":"A. Kuhrt, Routledge, 1995"},"bryce":{"title":"The Kingdom of the Hittites","detail":"T. Bryce, new ed., Oxford University Press, 2005"},"thiele":{"title":"The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings","detail":"E. R. Thiele, new rev. ed., Zondervan and Kregel, 1983"},"albright":{"title":"The Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel","detail":"W. F. Albright, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 100, 1945, pp. 16–22","url":"https://doi.org/10.2307/1355182"},"kitchen":{"title":"On the Reliability of the Old Testament","detail":"K. A. Kitchen, Eerdmans, 2003"},"hoffmeier":{"title":"Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition","detail":"J. K. Hoffmeier, Oxford University Press, 1996"},"merrill":{"title":"Kingdom of Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel","detail":"E. H. Merrill, 2nd ed., Baker Academic, 2008"},"finkelstein":{"title":"The Bible Unearthed","detail":"I. Finkelstein and N. A. Silberman, Free Press, 2001"},"finegan":{"title":"Handbook of Biblical Chronology","detail":"J. Finegan, rev. ed., Hendrickson, 1998"},"ussher":{"title":"The Annals of the World (Annales Veteris Testamenti)","detail":"J. Ussher, 1650; traditional chronology, shown only as a labeled view","url":"https://archive.org/details/annalsofworld00ussh"},"grayson":{"title":"Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles","detail":"A. K. Grayson, J. J. Augustin, 1975 (Chronicles 3, 5, and 7)"},"briant":{"title":"From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire","detail":"P. Briant, Eisenbrauns, 2002"},"ocd":{"title":"The Oxford Classical Dictionary","detail":"S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, and E. Eidinow (Eds.), 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2012","url":"https://oxfordre.com/classics"},"mazar":{"title":"Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 10,000–586 BCE","detail":"A. Mazar, Doubleday, 1990"},"moran":{"title":"The Amarna Letters","detail":"W. L. Moran, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992"},"lambert":{"title":"Atra-ḫasīs: The Babylonian Story of the Flood","detail":"W. G. Lambert and A. R. Millard, Oxford University Press, 1969"},"mallowan":{"title":"Noah’s Flood Reconsidered","detail":"M. E. L. Mallowan, Iraq 26(2), 1964, pp. 62–82","url":"https://doi.org/10.2307/4199766"},"biran":{"title":"The Tel Dan Inscription: A New Fragment","detail":"A. Biran and J. Naveh, Israel Exploration Journal 45(1), 1995, pp. 1–18"},"cos":{"title":"The Context of Scripture","detail":"W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Eds.), Brill, 1997–2002"},"schurer":{"title":"The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ","detail":"E. Schürer, rev. G. Vermes, F. Millar, and M. Black, T&T Clark, 1973–1987, Vol. 1"},"meier":{"title":"A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Vol. 1","detail":"J. P. Meier, Doubleday, 1991, ch. 11"},"hoehner":{"title":"Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ","detail":"H. W. Hoehner, Zondervan, 1977"},"riesner":{"title":"Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology","detail":"R. Riesner, Eerdmans, 1998"},"josant":{"title":"Antiquities of the Jews","detail":"Flavius Josephus, trans. W. Whiston, 1737 (public domain)","url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2848"},"joswar":{"title":"The Jewish War","detail":"Flavius Josephus, trans. W. Whiston, 1737 (public domain)","url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2850"},"tacitus":{"title":"Annals","detail":"Tacitus, Book 15.44","url":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=15:chapter=44"},"suetonius":{"title":"The Lives of the Twelve Caesars","detail":"Suetonius, Claudius 25 and Nero 16","url":"https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/home.html"},"irenaeus":{"title":"Against Heresies","detail":"Irenaeus, Book 5.30.3","url":"https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103530.htm"},"vanderkam":{"title":"The Dead Sea Scrolls Today","detail":"J. C. VanderKam, 2nd ed., Eerdmans, 2010"},"collins":{"title":"Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel","detail":"J. J. Collins, Hermeneia, Fortress Press, 1993"},"robinson":{"title":"Redating the New Testament","detail":"J. A. T. Robinson, SCM Press, 1976"},"williamson":{"title":"Ezra, Nehemiah","detail":"H. G. M. Williamson, Word Biblical Commentary 16, Word Books, 1985"},"kjv":{"title":"The Holy Bible, King James Version","detail":"1769 Oxford edition (public domain)","url":"/bible"},"adams":{"title":"Adams’ Synchronological Chart or Map of History","detail":"S. C. Adams Jr., 1871; 1881 edition scan on Wikimedia Commons (public domain). Layout inspiration only; no dates or text are taken from it.","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Adams_Synchronological_Chart,_1881.jpg"}}}